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THE 


FAMMEm^g  O-WIBM, 


A  NEW  THEORY  OF  AGRICULTURE: 


FOUNDED    ON 


PHILOSOPHICAL  AND  PRACTICAL  PRINCIPLES, 


ADAPTED      TO     ALL      CLIMATEJ 


BY    JAMKS    GASKINS. 


ajailttmore: 

PRINTED   BY   SAMUEL   SANDS, 

N.  W.  corner  of  Baltimore  &  North-sts. 

1S39. 


Entered,  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1838, 

By  James  Gaskins, 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  of  Maryland. 


£ 


/ 


^^  -Qxf 


r^S'S^ 


TO     THE 


AGRICULTURAL  INTEREST  OF  THE  U.  STATES. 


Gentlemen  : — 

Having,  after  the  expiration  of  more  than 
thirty  years,  spent  in  the  pursuit  of  practical  Agri- 
culture, arrived  at  certain  conclusions  entirely  at  va- 
riance with  the  old  established  doctrines,  it  is  nniy 
sincere  desire  that  I  may  be  successful  in  imparting 
to  my  fellow  citizens,  that  knowledge  on  the  im- 
provement of  the  soil.  It  is  my  object  also  to  shew, 
why  lands  are  so  soon  exhausted  by  the  cultivation  of 
certain  crops,  and  the  mode  to  be  pursued  for  its  pre- 
servation and  resuscitation.  The  plan  which  this 
work  proposes,  will  insure  the  cultivation  of  your 
different  crops  of  grain  and  vegetables  without  ex- 
hausting the  soil,  and  also  will  insure  the  restora- 
tion of  those  lands  which  have  been  exhausted  by  the 
following  crops,  viz  :  wheat,  corn,  oats,  rye,  barley, 
tobacco  and  any  of  the  vegetable  products.  By  the 
process  here  recommended,  lands  may  be  made  very 
rich  in  eight  or  ten  years,  though  a  crop  of  grain,  to- 
bacco, or  the  grasses,  be  taken  from  each  field  every 

year.     By  this  entirely  new  system  of  husbandry,  all 
1* 


ivi553988 


VI  PREFACE. 

species  of  property  would  necessarily  rise  in  value, 
and  the  tide  of  emigration  to  distant  lands  would 
cease.  It  is  hoped  that  the  people  will  open  their 
eyes  to  their  own  interest,  and  no  longer  impoverish 
their  lands,  when  it  is  equally  easy  to  improve  them. 
1  submit  this  work  to  the  impartial  consideration  of 
an  enlightened  community,  firmly  believing  that  an 
adherance  to  the  principles  here  laid  down,  will  not 
disappoint  the  expectations  either  of  the  community 
or  of  the  author. 

Who  very  respectfully  subscribes  himself, 

The  public^s  very  humble  servant, 
JAMES  GASKINS, 
Proprietor  of  the  American  Hotel ^ 

Jlnd  Virginia  House, 

Baltimore. 


INTRODUCTION 


The  true  art  of  cultivating  the  earth,  is  to  cause  it 
to  produce  the  greatest  possible  quantity  of  susten- 
ance for  man  and  beast,  with  the  least  possible  in- 
jury to  the  land.  This  art  is  the  foundation  of  all 
other  arts;  at  once  the  most  useful,  healthful,  and 
agreeable.  Snatch  from  man  this  glorious  art,  and 
he  at  once  sinks  to  a  level  with  the  savage,  who 
roams  the  forest,  and  dwells  in  rudely  constructed 
huts  or  caverns.  Being  the  most  ancient,  as  well  as 
the  most  useful,  Agriculture  is  not  only  a  national 
blessing  in  one  respect,  that  it  feeds  man  and  the  an- 
imals which  he  governs;  but  that  it  gives  employ- 
ment to  seven-eighths  of  the  people  of  all  civilized 
countries,  and  at  the  same  time  humanizes  and  harmo- 
nizes the  mind. 

The  first  account  we  have  of  the  rise  or  of  the  ex- 
istence of  Agriculture,  w^e  find  in  the  writings  of  Mo- 
ses. Cain,  we  are  there  told,  was  a  "  tiller  of  the 
ground,'^  and  that  his  brother  Abel  made  a  sacrifice 
of  the  "  firstlings  of  his  flock."  Again,  we  are  told 
that  Noah  "  began  to  be  a  husbandman,  and  planted 
a  vineyard." 


VHl  INTRODUCTION. 

The  Egyptians  carried  their  veneration  for  Agri- 
culture to  a  high  pitch  of  enthusiasm;  so  much  so, 
that  they  worshipped  the  ox  in  gratitude  for  his  servi- 
ces in  tilling  the  soil. 

The  Chinese,  as  well  as  many  others  of  the  ancient 
oriental  nations,  held  the  art  of  husbandry  in  high  es- 
timation, considering  it  the  most  honorable  and  the 
most  lucrative. 

Many  works  were  written  on  Agriculture  by  dis- 
tinguished ancient  authors,  though  the  greater  number 
of  them  were  lost  in  the  long  midnight  of  time,  du- 
ring the  dark  ages,  when  war  was  the  only  accom- 
plishment which  could  elevate  one  individual  above 
another.  The  Greek  author,  Hesiod,  who  flour- 
ished about  the  time  in  which  Homier  wrote,  is  said 
to  have  given  to  the  world  a  poem  on  Agriculture, 
with  the  singular  title  of  "  Weeks  and  Days,"  in  al- 
lusion to  the  fact  that  days  and  seasons  are  observed 
in  husbandry. 

The  Carthagenians,  perhaps,  carried  Agriculture 
to  a  higher  state  of  perfection  than  any  other  ancient 
people.  A  certain  Carthagenian  general  is  reported 
to  have  written  more  than  twenty -five  books  on  hus- 
bandry, and  in  such  estimation  were  they  held,  that, 
according  to  several  ancient  authors,  the  Roman  Sen- , 
ate,  tlie  most  renowned  body  in  the  world,  ordered 
them  to  be  translated  into  Latin  for  the  use  of  the 
people  of  the  Roman  empire.  The  Roman  people 
deserved  great  praise  for  their  devotion  to  the  plough. 


INTRODUCTION.  IX 

At  one  period  a  citizen  of  that  mighty  empire  could 
not  be  rendered  more  illustrious  than  to  be  called  a 
skilful  husbandman.  Virgil,  in  his  immortal  poem, 
has  corroborated  the  fact,  that  men  were  distinguish- 
ed b}^  their  love  of  this  science.  M.  Cato,  the  great 
orator,  warrior  and  statesman,  was  more  proud  in 
speaking  of  an  agricultural  work  he  had  written,  than 
when  he  beheld  triumphal  arches  rise  to  commemo- 
rate his  brilliant  exploits  in  the  field.  Pliny,  and 
Varro,  were  also  illustrious  men  who  wrote  upon,  and 
admired  the  subject  of  husbandry.  The  celebrated 
Columella,  who  lived  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Claudius,  gave  to  the  world  twelve  books  on  Agricul- 
ture, which  were  highly  prized. 

But,  unfortunately  for  the  present  day,  as  observed 
before,  the  dark  ages  have  buried  in  their  eternal 
gloom  the  proud  monuments  of  many  a  glorious  ge-^ 
nius.  But  such  is  the  fate  of  man.  He  builds,  as  he 
vainly  supposes,  imperishable  mementos  to  his  re- 
nown; yet,  alas,  they  are  touched  by  the  noiseless' 
tooth  of  time,  and  they  crumble  into  dust — they 
pass  away  like  the  flickering  shadows  of  a  summer's 
evening. 

Yet  though  the  noblest  works  of  ancient  genius 
perish,  and  the  remembrance  of  them  only  lives  in 
tradition,  Agriculture  shall  still  triumph,  and  shed  its 
light  upon  the  world,  when  even  the  proudest  poten- 
tates of  Europe  have  tumbled  from  their  thrones,  and 
ai'e  lost  in  the  solitude  of  the  grave^ 


X  INTRODUCTION. 

It  will  be  the  object  of  this  work  to  show,  howev- 
er, that  the  most  distinguished  Agriculturists  have 
mistaken  the  true  path,  and  that  they  have  groped  in 
.  utter  darkness.  That  this  assertion  is  true,  I  need  on- 
ly point  the  reader  to  the  worn  out  lands  of  many 
parts  of  this  otherwise  flourishing  country.  Improp- 
er tillage  has  reduced  them  to  what  they  are,  though 
nature  never  designed  that  they  should  wear  out.  It 
is  unreasonable,  it  is  unnatural  to  suppose  so.  As 
well  might  we  say  that  many  or  all  the  laws  of  nature 
are  fickle  and  unstable,  as  to  say  that  nature  intended 
that  the  soil,  which  was  intended  to  feed  all  animate 
nature,  should  soon  by  a  law  become  incapable  to 
fulfil  its  office.  No;  it  is  the  mistaken  notions,  it  is 
the  improper  culture  of  man.  Therefore,  as  observ- 
ed before,  it  will  be  the  especial  object  of  this  work 
to  explode  all  such  unnatural  theories. 

JAMES  GASKINS. 
Baltimore. 


A    NEW    THEORY 
FOR   THE   IMPROVEMENT    OF  THE  SOIL, 

In  which  it  will  be  shown  that  Agriculturists  have 

HERETOFORE  OPERATED  AGAINST  NaTURE,  INSTEAD  OF 
aiding  her.  AlSO^  it  will  BE  PROVEN,  THAT  LAND 
MAY  BE  RENDERED  RICH  WITHOUT  THE  APPLICATION  OF 
A    PARTICLE    OF    STABLE    OR    COMPOST    MANURE. 


The  landed  estate  is  the  most  sacred  interest  that 
we  have  in  the  United  States ;  whatever  concerns  Ag- 
riculture concerns  every  inhabitant  of  the  globe,  for 
its  interests  are  the  interests  of  the  world;  and, 
therefore,  every  effort  that  is  made  to  advance  the 
success  of  the  farmer,  must  spring  at  once  from  a 
pure  spirit  of  philanthropy  and  patriotism.  He  who 
introduces  into  the  art  of  Agriculture  any  thing  new 
and  uselul,  renders  himself  at  once  a  greater  benefac- 
tor to  mankind,  than  he  who  thunders  at  the  gates  of 
cities,  and  achieves  a  thousand  victories  in  the  field. 
I  hold  the  doctrine  to  be  incontestible,  that  the  man 
who  advances  in  any  manner  whatever  the  art  of  hus- 
bandry, is  more  deserving  of  fame  than  was  the  mad 
Macedonian  when  he  conquered  the  world,  and  saw 


12  A    yEW    THEORY 

the  nations  of  the  earth  kneeling  before  him; — yes, 
he  is  far  more  worthy  of  renown  than  was  Napoleon, 
though  thrones  trembled  and  crowns  crumbled  at  his 
approach.  Alas,  that  the  benefactors  of  mankind 
should  so  often  have  met  the  cold  indifference  of  the 
world,  and  have  been  left  to  pine  in  penury,  and  per- 
ish unnoticed  and  disregarded.  To  the  warrior  who 
destroys  thousands  of  his  fellow  beings,  and  makes 
so  many  mothers  mourn,  the  marble  monument  is 
erected,  and  his  renown  is  recorded  on  the  imperish- 
able pages  of  history.  To  him  who  invents  a  many 
chambered  rifle  to  destroy  the  human  race  by  the 
wholesale,  thousands  of  money  are  given,  and  his 
name  recorded  in  the  temple  of  fame.  But  how  did 
poor  Whitney,  the  inventer  of  the  Cotton  Gin,  live 
and  die?  Alas  !  though  his  invention  has  given  mil- 
lions to  the  Southern  States,  yet  he  died  a  beggar,  af- 
ter crawling  through  existence  in  the  most  abject 
poverty.  / 

In  presenting  novel  views,  upon  a  subject  w^hich 
has  elicited  the  profoundest  attention  of  the  Geolo- 
gist, we  well  know  that  we  must  subject  ourselves  to 
the  cavils  of  the  ignorant,  as  well  as  the  prejudices  of 
the  inexperienced.  Relying,  however,  on  the  patient 
observation  and  experience  of  threescore  years,  we 
fearlessly  present  our  views,  having  seen  the  practi- 
cal effects  growing  out  of  what  others  will  term  a 
dangerous  innovation,  or  novel  theory.  There  is  evi- 
dently a  strong  tendency  in  the  human  mind  to  start  at 


FOR  THE   IMPROVEMENT  OP   THE   SOIL.  13 

any  new  system  which  may  be  advanced,  and  it  has 
been  the  case  from  time  immemorial.     When  Chris- 
topher Columbus  first  advanced  his  splendid  theory  of 
the  necessity  of  a  fourth  quarter  of  the  globe,  the 
kings  of  Europe,  to  whom  he  applied  for  aid,  ridicul- 
ed the  project,  and  denounced  him  as  a  dreamer,  an 
enthusiast  or  a  maniac.     He  was  at  last  indebted  to 
a  woman,  queen   Isabella  of  Spain,  for  his  outfit ; 
which  resulted  in  the  brilliant  discovery  of  America. 
This  is  mentioned  to  shew  how  prone  men  are  to 
ridicule  and  undervalue  any  thing  that  does  not  bear 
the  stamp  of  age.     Such  was  the  fate  of  Fulton,  when 
he  projected  the  plan  of  steam  navigation.    The  idea  of 
moving  any  thing  by  the  mere  steam  of  boiling  water, 
was  perfectly  ridiculous  to  the  minds  of  thousands ; 
and,  consequently,  no  purse  was  open  to  aid  him  in  his 
grand  and  glorious  enterprise.  But  when  the  thousands 
who  came  on  the  wharf  at  New- York  to  hiss,  saw  the 
boat  move  on  the  water  like  a  thing  of  life,  their  hissing 
was  changed  to  shouting.     What  a  triumph  of  genius 
was  there !     The  above  facts  are  brought  to  show, 
that  no  theory,  however   novel,  should   be  rejected 
without  deep  and  candid  examination.     Many  facts 
are  elicited,  and  many  discoveries  made  in  the  world, 
that  incredulous  persons  never  could  have  conceiv- 
ed.    Thirty  years  ago,  what  man  would  have  believ- 
ed that  in  1838  steam  cars  would  be  running  on  rail- 
roads at  the  rate  of  twenty,  forty,  and  even  sixty  miles 
per  hour.? 


14  A   NEW  THEORY 

We  assume,  then,  as  a  proposition,  that  land  is  not 
exhausted  by  its  products;  but  that  its  exhaustion 
arises  from  the  exposure  of  the  land  to  the  sun  du- 
ring the  period  of  making  the  crop,  together  with  the 
consequences  growing  out  of  the  naked  or  unclothed 
condition  of  the  land  during  winter. 

To  prove  this,  take  a  view  of  lands  that  are  richly 
timbered  and  which  are  generally  found  to  be  the  rich- 
est. It  is  evident  that  the  heavy  growth  of  timber 
does  not  weaken  the  soil  in  fifty  years,  for  the  trees 
flourish,  and  the  land  is  strengthened ;  and  the  leaves 
which  fall  protect  tlie  soil  in  winter.  Reverse  the 
matter,  and  take  a  view  of  a  tract  of  land  which  has 
not  been  sown  in  grain  for  many  years,  but  which 
has  been  used  for  pasture  ground.  It  will  become 
impoverished  ;  hence  it  follows,  that  the  products  of 
the  soil  do  not  weaken  it. 

In  order  to  sustain  the. above  proposition,  we  shall 
offer  a  few  illustrations  which  must  come  home  to  the 
mind  of  every  practical  farmer  in  the  country.  If 
you  place  a  small  coat  of  grass  on  your  land,  will  the 
sun  have  the  same  power  to  extract  the  nitre  from  the 
soil  and  cause  it  to  become  dry  .-^  Certainly  not. — 
No  man  who  has  observed  the  operations  of  nature 
will  contradict  the  position  here  assumed.  Then  if 
your  soil  remain  moist,  having  a  coat  of  grass  upon 
it,  it  will  not  only  be  placed  in  a  situation  to  receive 
the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere,  or  the  dews  of  the 
evening,  but  it  will  retain  them.     By  this  mode  your 


FOR   THE    IMPROVEMENT  OF   THE    SOIL.  16 

lands  must  become  enriched,  for  the  rains,  dews  and 
snow  are  replete  with  nitre,  and  by  placing  this  coat 
of  grass  upon  your  land  during  the  Fall  and  Winter, 
you  not  only  keep  your  land  warm,  but  you  retain 
the  nitre  which  would  otherwise  have  left  the  frozen 
earth.  The  affinity  between  the  moist  grass  and  the 
nitre  would  retain  it  until  the  following  day,  when  it 
would  melt  and  fall  back  upon  the  soil,  enriching  and 
improving  it.  For  the  nitre  never  leaves  the  soil  in 
a  frosted  state,  but  becomes  so  when  exposed  so  to 
the  atmosphere. 

Take  for  example,  to  elucidate  the  above,  a  plank 
ten  or  twelve  feet  long  and  twelve  inches  wide;  lay 
it  on  the  naked  surface  of  the  ground  when  frozen; 
turn  it  over  next  morning,  and  you  will  find  the  under 
part  of  the  plank  white  as  snow.  This  result  is  pro- 
duced every  night,  and  a  constant  evaporation  and 
exhaustion  is  carried  on  tli rough  the  winter.  Whence 
arises  this  frost  ?  I  answer,  (rom  the  soil ;  and  it 
is  this  which  impoverishes,  exhausts,  and  weakens 
the  soil,  just  as  the  rising  of  cream  on  new  milk  leaves 
the  milk  destitute  of  its  original  strength. 

The  proper  mode,  then,  is  to  put  all  your  land  in 
timothy  and  clover,  except  that  portion  you  retain  for 
the  production  of  Indian  corn,  wheat,  oats  or  tobac- 
co, and  by  this  mode,  simple  as  it  is,  you  not  only  pro- 
tect your  land  from  the  heat  of  Summer  and  the  cold 
of  Winter — you  not  only  preserve  its  inherent  heat 
and  fertility,  but  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  your 


16  A  NEW  THEORY. 

land  will  become  positively  enriched.  Every  farmer 
should  divide  his  farm  into  six  part^  or  fields,  two  of 
which  should  be  in  wheat,  corn,  oats,  tobacco  or  any 
other  vegetable  productions.  The  other  four  fields 
should  be  in  clover,  timothy,  or  any  of  the  grasses. 
The  fields  should  be  numbered  one,  two,  three,  &c. 
For  instance.  No.  1  should  be  in  corn ;  No.  2  in  grass- 
es ;  No.  3  in  grasses ;  No.  4  in  wheat,  tobacco,  or 
such  like  production ;  No.  5  in  grasses, -and  No.  6  in 
grasses.  Now  in  order  to  give  the  land  that  rest 
which  it  absolutely  requires,  the  fields  before  number- 
ed, must  be  cultivated  in  regular  routine;  that  is  to 
say.  No.  1,  that  is  this  year  in  corn,  must  be  left  in 
clover;  and  No.  2,  that  is  this  year  in  clover,  must 
next  year  be  planted  in  corn.  Also,  No.  4,  that  is 
this  year  in  wheat,  niust  be  left  in  clover ;  and  No.  5, 
which  is  in  grass,  must  next  year  be  seeded  with 
wheat,  oats,  or  tobacco.  This  routine  should  be  reg- 
ularly followed,  by  which  the  greater  portion  of  the 
farm,  say  two  thirds,  would  be  in  a  state  of  rest ;  and 
being  shielded  from  the  rays  of  the  sun  by  the  coat  of 
clover,  evaporation  would  be  greatly  lessened,  the 
earth  would  retain  all  the  fatness  it  possesses,  and 
would  be  continually  increasing  in  fertility,  from  the 
abundance  that  falls  from  the  clouds. 

No  intelligent  fttrmer  should  tc^ke  more  than  one 
crop  of  grain  or  clover  in  one  year  from  any  one  of 
the  fields,  as  the  old  plan  of  cutting  several  succes- 
sive crops  of  clover  th^  same  year,  leaves  the  land 


EVAPORATION,  &C.  17 

exposed,  and  the  consequent  impoverishment  which 
ensues,  more  than  counterbalances  the  extra  profit 
which  he  deiives.  It  should  be  enough  that  he  de- 
rives the  benefit  of  a  crop  iVom  every  field.  The 
four  crops  of  clover  will  be  as  profitable  as  the  two 
crops  of  grain,  after  deducting  the  expenses  of  culti- 
vating the  latter.  Evaporation  is  the  great  enemy  to 
land  ;  a  much  greater  f»nemy  than  mankind  have  yet 
conceived  it  to  he.  That  the  system  advanced  in  this 
book  may  be  the  better  understood,  I  shall  describe 
the  manner  in  which  water  is  taken  up  into  the  high- 
er regions;  how  clouds  are  formed,  and  the  rain 
thrown  down  upon  the  earth. 


PHILOSOPHICAL  EXPOSITION  OF  EVAPORATION 
— Of  the  ascent  of  vapour — Of  the  formation  of 
CLOUDS — And   of    the    condensation   and   fall  or 

RAIN. 

It  is  a  fact  well  known  in  Natural  Philosophy, 
Chat  all  the  water  of  the  earth,  seas,  lakes,  rivers,  &c. 
is  alternately  raised  by  the  heat  of  the  sun,  and 
thrown  dovsn  from  the  clouds  to  the  earth.  This 
beautiful  process,  this  wise  provision  of  nature,  is 
constantly  going  @n  day  and  night.  Winter  and  Sum- 
mer. It  is  from  this  cause  that  the  earth  is  not  drown- 
ed by  the  vast  quantities  of  water  which  fall  upon 
it.     It  is  a  well  known  truth,  that  there  is  not  one 


18  PHILOSOPHICAL    EXPOSITION 

drop  more  or  less  of  water  now,  than  there  was  at 
the  creation  of  the  world. 

It  is  a  hwin  philosophy,  that  heat  expands  and  cold 
contracts  all  bodies.  It  is  said  that  there  is  but  one 
exception  to  this  rule,  but  whether  it  is  really  so  or 
not  I  am  not  prepared  to  say,  as  the  greatest  philoso- 
phers are  at  variance  on  the  subject.  The  excep- 
tion I  allude  to,  is  the  freezing  of  water.  It  is  well 
known  to  every  individual,  that  water  expands  in  free- 
zing, and  to  such  a  degree  as  often  to  burst  asunder 
the  vessel  which  contains  it.  Now  whether  it  actu- 
ally absorbs  heat  in  the  act  of  freezing,  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  say.  If  it  does,  it  is  no  longer  an  exception 
to  the  general  rule.  Some  authors  have  contended, 
that  the  expansion  of  water  in  the  act  of  freezing,  is 
owing  to  the  awkward  arrangement  of  the  parti- 
cles. 

But  tp  proceed.  In  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
when  God  said,  "  Let  there  be  light,  and  there  was 
light,"  the  first  golden  ray  which  fell  from  the  glori- 
ous orb, — the  sun, — on  the  earth  and  ocean,  by  ex- 
panding the  particles  of  water,  it  became  vapour,  and 
being  lighter  than  the  atmospheric  air,  it  ascended  by 
a  well  known  law  into  the  regions  of  space.  Now 
all  bodies  have  a  tendency  to  approach  the  centre  of 
the  earth,  in  proportion  to  their  weight,  or  in  propor- 
tion to  the  great  quantity  of  matter  in  a  small  com- 
pass. An  ounce  of  gold,  which  is  next  to  the  heavi- 
est of  all  metals,  will  never  'rise  in  the  atmosphere 


CF   ETAPORATION,  &C.  1  9 

while  it  remains  in  a  solid  cube  or  bar ;  but  when  the 
gold  beater  has  hamnnered  it  into  thin  leaves,  it  rises 
and  floats  in  the  air.  Its  great  surface  gives  the  air 
power  to  support  it,  and  hence  the  attraction  of  grav- 
itation is  destroyed. 

It  is  thus  with  water.  Heat  expands  the  dense 
particles  of  water,  which  becoming  lighter  ascend  to 
the  higher  regions.  If  the  atmosphere,  which  ascends 
forty  miles  above  the  earth,  were  every  where  of  the 
same  density,  the  vapour  of  the  earth  and  sea  would 
rise  to  the  top;  but  nature  designed  it  otherwise. 
The  density  of  the  air  decreases  in  proportion  to  the 
squares  of  the  distances  from  the  earth.  Conse- 
quently, so  soon  as  the  vapour  rises  to  a  region  where 
the  air  is  equally  rarified,  it  ceases  to  ascend  ;  but 
floats  in  beautiful  white  clouds  over  the  earth,  or  ap- 
pears in  the  West  in  darkness  and  storm,  its  bosom 
occasionally  illuminated  with  the  livid  lightning. 

As  was  observed  before,  the  vapours  arising  from 
the  earth  accumulate  in  the  upper  regions,  where  the 
atmospheric  air  is  of  the  same  specific  gravity. 
Here,  by  the  great  accumulations  of  vapours,  clouds 
are  formed;  which  by  coming  in  contact  with  a  cold 
current  of  air,  are  condensed  into  water;  and  which 
by  the  law  of  gravity  or  weight,  falls  to  the  ground. 
The  principle  of  condensation  any  one  may  observe 
in  Winter,  by  blowing  his  breath  against  a  cold  pane 
of  glass.  Every  person  on  a  frosty  morning  must 
have  observed  the  column  of  smoke-like  breath 
which  issued  from  his  mouth. 


20  PHILOSOPHICAL   EXPOSITION 

The  manner  in  which  drops  of  rain  arc  fornied  is 
this.  The  cold  stratum  of  air  coming  in  contact  with 
the  vapour,  condenses  into  water  the  minute  particles, 
which  coming  within  the  sphere  of  each  other's  at- 
traction, are  tinited  in  the  form  of  drops.  Becoming 
solid,  their  weight  is  increased,  and  they  must  de- 
scend on  the  fields  and  flowers  of  the  earth. 

How  wonderful,  how  heautiful,  are  the  works  of 
nature !  How  much  should  we  lift  our  minds  to  the 
great  Author  of  such  wonders !  How  nicely  he  has 
adapted  every  thing  to  its  proper  use.  If  the  vast 
reservoirs  of  the  earth  were  never  emptied  by  evapo- 
ration, vegetation  would  perish  from  the  abundance 
of  water,  and  on  the  contrary,  if  all  the  waters  were 
drawn  off  by  evaporation,  the  vegetable  kingdom 
must  droop  and  die.  Again,  were  the  vapours  which 
are  carried  up  from  the  earth  always  to  remain  in  a 
state  of  vapour,  the  principle  or  law  of  evaporatioa 
would  be  of  no  service ;  and  on  the  contrary,  were 
the  power  of  attraction  increased,  the  water  instead 
of  coming  down  fiom  the  clouds  in  drops,  would  fall 
in  solid  masses  and  crush  the  vegetable  creation  be- 
neath its  mighty  mass. 

Thus,  to  recapitulate,  we  find  that  the  water,  which 
we  find  in  the  ocean  to-day,  is  to  morrow  carried  up 
by  evaporation  in  the  clouds,,  and  descends  in  the  form 
of  rain,  hail,  snow,  frost,  or  dew,  according  to  the 
height  which  it  ascends,  and  the  coldness  of  the  cur- 
rent of  air  with  which  it  comes  in  contact 


OF    EVAPORATION,   &C.  21 

Here,  then,  I  come  to  the  point  necessary  to  eluci- 
date the  subject  under  consideration.  When  rain  is 
formed,  it  is  by  the  simple  condensation  of  the  vapour 
into  drops.  When  hail  is  formed,  it  is  first  by  con- 
densation of  the  vapour  into  drops,  which  by  a  very 
cold  current  are  frozen  into  hail  stones  as  they  fall. 
Snow  is  nothing  more  than  half  condensed  vapour,  fro- 
zen just  before  it  falls,  by  attraction,  into  drops. 
Dew  is  fine  vapour  which  has  not  ascended  high  into 
the  atmosphere,  and  falls  before  attraction  renders 
the  drops  large,,  by  bringing  many  of  the  particles 
together. 

Now  all  these,  by  percolating  Or  filtering  through 
the  earth,  leave  the  nitre  which  they  contain  in  the 
soil,  and  render  it  rich  when  the  land  is  screened  from 
the  sun  by  a  coat  of  clover  or  any  oi  the  grasses.  As 
was  observed  before,  this  is  effected  in  the  same  man- 
ner that  a  spot  of  earth  becomes  rich  when  covered 
with  a  plank  or  pile  of  stones. 


ON    THE 

CULTIVATION    OF    WHEAT. 


Permit  me  to  give  you  my  opinioH  as  to  the  proper 
and  best  manner  of  cultivating  wheat.  In  the  first 
place,  procure  the  best  seed  w^heat  you  can  obtain, 
and  instead  of  fjloughingyour  fallow  in  the  months  of 
June,  July,  or  August,  you  should  seed  your  wheat  in 
the  months  of  September  and  October,  on  the  top  of 
your  clover,  and  on  the  hard  ground.  Plough  your 
clover  wiieat  in  about  four  inches  together,  and  as 
soon  as  you  turn  them  under,  seed  the  same  ground 
down  in  buckwheat.  Then  apply  a  large  fallow  har- 
row and  pulverize  the  ground.  Use  the  harrow  ia 
the  same  direction  that  you  ploughed  it ;  then  seed 
the  ground  in  timothy  or  orchard  grass,  and  the  clover 
will  seed  itself  from  the  crop  you  have  turned  in. 
Clear  out  your  furrow,  so  as  to  drain  the  land,  and 
then  take  as  heavy  a  roller  as  you  can  obtain  and  roll 
the  land  crossways.  You  may  see  from  this  mode  of 
seeding  wheat,  that  it  is  all  manured  in  the  hill.  I 
have  turned  under  the  clover  and  the  soil  together, 
which  manures  the  wheat.  The  buckwheat  will 
come  up  in  six  or  eight  days,  and  cover  the  land  from 
the  sun.     The   clover  and  timothy  will  do  likewise, 


CULTIVATION    OP    WHEAT.  84 

and  by  the  time  the  frost  takes  the  buckwheat,  it  will 
be  from  eighteen  inches  to  two  feet  high.  The  frost 
will  kill  the  buckwheat,  but  the  straw  will  remain, 
which  will  keep  the  land  warm  and  the  wheat  will  re- 
main beautifully  green  all  Winter,  with  the  clover  and 
timoihy.  Your  wheat  will  branch  from  ten  to  fifteen 
times,  and  will  branch  again  in  the  Spring  following. 
By  this  mode  of  seeding,  your  wheat  will  be  as 
thick  as  it  can  stand,  and  as  high  as  your  chin. 

It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  you  will  never  fail  to 
make  a  crop  by  this  mode  of  procedure.  The  Win- 
ter cannot  kill  your  wheat,  clover  or  grass,  for  the 
straw  which  remains  on  the  land  from  the  buckwheat 
will  preserve  and  keep  them  warm,  as  was  observed 
before. 

If  there  should  be  a  small  fall  of  snow  together  with 
a  wind,  the  snow  will  lodge  in  the  straw,  which  will 
retain  it  and  keep  it  from  blowing  o(F.  The  crop  of 
straw  will  prevent  the  evaporation  of  the  frosts  in  win- 
ter, for  as  the  Nitre  that  leaves  the  earth  which  makes 
the  frost  on  the  underside  of  a  plank  which  lies  on 
the  ground  would  evaporate  in  the  air,  if  the  plank 
were  not  there,  so  it  is  the  case  with  all  lands  which 
are  lelt  in  a  naked  and  exposed  state.  If  your  lands 
are  covered  with  grass  they  will  retain  the  Nitre  un- 
til next  day,  when  it  will  dissolve  and  fall  back  into 
the  soil,  thus  rendering  your  land  constantly  richer. 
In  the  Spring,  so  soon  as  the  hard  frosts  are  over, 
your  land   should  again  be  rolled,  so  as  to  set  the 


24  CULTIVATION     OF    WHEAT* 

.  wheat  and  grass  back  into  the  soil.  Then  your  crop . 
will  proceed  to  grow  vigorously,  and  your  soil  to  im- 
prove rapidly.  Your  wheat  land  is  left  under  clover 
and  timothy,  and  you  should  not  turn  any  kind  of 
stock  on  your  stubble  field  ;  but  have  your  stubble  ra» 
ked  as  carefully  as  possible,  by  which  means  you 
will  save  all  your  scattered  wheat.  You  should  by 
no  means  pasture  any  of  your  lands  which  you  intend 
for  cultivation  and  wish  to  improve ;  for  the  croppifig 
of  the  clover  or  grass  exposes  the  lands  to  the  direct 
rays  of  the  sun,  which,  as  before  observed,  carry  off 
by  evaporation  the  richness  of  the  soil. 

NoTE.-^I  have  known  one  gallon  of  wheat  raised 
from  a  single  grain,  in  the  garden  of  Wm.  Brinckley, 
of  Milford,  State  of  Delaware.  The  reader,  no  doubt, 
will  be  anxious  to  know  how  it  was  effected.  I  will 
gratify  so  laudable  a  curiosity.  The  grain  of  wheat 
was  planted  early  in  the  Spring,  and  continued  to 
grow  until  the  month  of  June,  when  it  was  taken  up, 
seperated  into  ninety  branches,  and  then  transplanted 
one  foot  apart  each  way.  It  was  then  cultivated  with 
a  hoe  through  the  summer,  and  that  wheat  branched 
as  luxuriantly  as  the  first;  so  that  the  whole  space  of 
ground  was  filled  up  the  next  Summer.  The  wheat 
was  cut  and  threshed,  and  measured,  to  the  astonish- 
ment of  many,  one  gallon. 

From  this  the  frugal  farmer  may  see  how  much 
may  be  raised  by  putting  in  wheat  carefully,  and  by 
taking  good  care  to  have  the  land  covered  in  Winter 
with  the  same  kind  of  straw. 


CORN.  » 

ON  THE  CULTIVATION  OF  CORN. 

Flush  your  field,  which  has  remained  in  clover  and 
grass  for  the  two  last  years,  about  six  inches  deep ; 
checker  the  ground  at  the  distances  you  wish  to  plant 
your  corn.  While  you  are  checkering  off  your 
ground,  you  should  not  suffer  your  plough  to  run 
deeper  than  four  inches.  By  this  means  you  leave 
the  rich  part  of  the  earth  two  inches  lower  down  than 
you  drop  your  corn.  Cover  your  grain  out  of  the 
furrow,  and  you  have  the  rich  part  of  your  land  at 
the  bottom  of  the  hills. 

Your  land  having  been  covered  all  Winter  with  clo- 
ver and  grass,  vegetation  will  spring  and  grow  with 
great  rapidity  ;  and  the  richness  of  the  soil  will  have 
been  increased  in  consideration  of  its  having  been 
rested  for  two  years.  It  is  an  incontrovertible  fact, 
that  the  growth  of  grain  is  twice  as  rapid  when  the 
soil  has  previously  been  covered,  as  when  it  has  been 
exposed  to  frost,  which  causes  evaporation  to  take 
place,  and  your  land  becomes  clammy  and  dead,  until 
the  land  receives  the  Nitre  again  by  the  dews  and 
rains  in  the  Spring. 

So  soon  as  your  corn  comes  up,  you  must  com* 
mence  the  cultivation  of  it  with  the  harrow ;  which 
should  go  over  it  twice  in  succession.  Then  take 
your  small  plough  and  cross  plough  your  corn,  and 
by  that  time  your  presence  will  be  needed  in  the  har- 
vest field.  So  soon  as  you  get  through  your  harvest, 
you  should  return  to  your  corn  field ;  and  if  the  sea- 
son should  prove  dry,  you  should  work  your  corn  the 
3 


S6i 


CORK. 


faster,  say  twice  a  week,  and  proceed  until  you  find 
the  silk  is  dead,  and  turned  black  at  tlie  end  of  the 
car;  for  so  long  as  there  is  new  silk  coaling  out  of 
the  ear  or  husk,  you  must  continue  to  work  your 
corn,  inasmuch  as  the  cob  is  growing  larger,  and  new 
grains  forming.    • 

By  this  mode  of  cultivating  your  corn,  you  will  be 
sure  of  a  full  crop,  if  not  a  double  one.  You  must 
pick  your  best  corn  for  seed ;  break  your  ear  in  the 
middle,  and  take  the  best  end  for  your  seed.  If  your 
land  is  wet,  you  should  soak  your  corn  by  passing 
hot  water  through  it  the  night  previous ;  as  it  is  a  well 
known  fact,  that  if  the  ground  is  wet  and  the  corn 
dry,  the  latter  will  rot,  and  vice  versa. 

If  the  season  should  prove  wet,  you  must  endeav- 
or to  keep  your  land  well  drained,  and  work  it  once 
or  twice  a  week  with  your  harrow.  So  soon  as  the 
silk  of  the  corn  becomes  black  or  appears  dead,  you 
should  commence  taking  down  your  fodder;  and  so 
soon  as  you  get  it  secured,  you  should  commence  cut- 
ting off  by  the  ground  the  stalks,  and  have  them 
shocked  against  the  fence  of  your  barn  yarn,  or  some 
other  convenient  place. 

You  may  now  seed  your  corn  ground  down  in 
buckwheat  with  a  harrow  ;  then  seed  the  same  ground 
in  clover  and  grass ;  roll  the  ground  with  your  roller, 
and  the  buckwheat  will  come  up  in  six  or  eight  days, 
which  will  cover  and  give  security  from  the  sun  to  the 
land,  clover  and  grass.     By  the  time  the  frost  nips  the 


CORN.  S7 

buckwheat^  it  will  be  from  eighteen  inches  to  two 
feet  in  height;  the  straw  of  which  will  remain  on  the 
land,  and  give  to  it  as  well  as  the  clover  and  grass, 
all  the  warmth  they  require  from  the  cold  of  Win- 
ter. 

In  the  ensuing  Spring,  so  soon  as  the  hard  frosts 
are  over,  you  should  roll  your  grass  and  clover,  and 
settle  them  into  the  earth.  The  next  harvest  you  wnll 
have  a  full  crop  of  hay,  and  by  this  mode  you  will 
not  any  year  lose  a  crop  from  any  of  your  fields. 

You  should  never  plough  your  land  in  the  Summer 
or  Fall,  unless  you  cannot  avoid  it;  which  must  be 
done  in  the  seeding  of  your  wheat.  You  should 
never  plough  your  land  more  than  six  inches  deep,  as 
it  will  sink  the  richer  part  of  the  soil  so  deep  as  to 
require  one  or  two  years  to  bring  that  soil  again  to  the 
surface,  and  yield  nourishment  to  vegetation..  If  I 
were  at  present  a  practical  farmer  as  I  have  been,  I 
would  not  use  any  plough  larger  than  a  nine  inch 
plough,  and  from  that  size  to  one  of  six  inches.  The 
small  plough  can  be  made  to  plough  up  the  most  grassy 
land,  by  giving  it  the  double  singletree ;  that  is  to 
say,  if  your  plough  cuts  nine  inches,  your  double  sin- 
gletree must  be  twenty-seven  inches  long.  If  your 
plough  cuts  eight  inches,  your  double  singletree  must 
be  twenty-four  inches.  By  having  your  double  sin- 
gletree three  times  the  length  that  your  plough  cuts, 
your  plough  will  always  run  easy  to  the  horses, 
and  turn  the  furrow  in  the  very  best  manner. 


38  &TE; 


ON   THE    CULTIVATION   OF    RYE. 

You  should  have  your  seed  clean  and  of  the  best 
quality,  and  seed  your  rye  on  the  top  of  your  clover 
in  the  months  of  October  and  November.  You 
should  plough  your  clover  and  the  rye  all  in  together, 
about  four  inches ;  and  then  seed  your  ground  behind 
the  plough  in  buckwheat.  The  next  process  is  to 
take  your  fallow  harrow  and  pulverize  your  ground 
as  finely  as  possible,  and  afterward  clean  out  your 
furrows.  The  same  land  should  be  seeded  in  timo- 
thy, and  the  clover  will  seed  itself. 

Obtain  a  roller  if  you  have  none,  and  roll  the 
ground  crossways  as  well  as  you  can.  In  six  or  eight 
days  your  buckwheat  will  come  up,  and  cover  your 
ground  from  the  sun  in  the  Fall.  The  buckwheat 
will  grow  from  15  to  18  inches  by  the  time  the  frost 
takes  it.  There  will  be  straw  enough  on  the  ground 
to  shelter  the  rye,  clover  and  timothy,  from  the  Win- 
ter, and  there  will  be  no  fear  but  you  will  be  able  to 
make  a  double  crop. 

By  this  mode  of  cultivating  your  land,  it  must  be- 
come rich ;  for  the  frosts  cannot  draw  the  Nitre  from 
^he  earth,  and  by  keeping  the  earth  warm  in  Winter, 
and  cool  in  Summer,  your  land  will  improve  faster 
than  by  the  aid  of  manure  raised  on  the  same  ground. 
It  is  my  opinion  that  nothing  raised  from  the  earth 
impoverishes  it.     Look,  as  was  observed  before,  at 


RYE.  a» 

the  lofty  woodlands  of  the  West,  that  have  stood  for 
ages.  Now,  according  to  the  common  doctrine,  so 
many  large  oaks  would  suck  up  all  the  substance  of 
the  soil  and  render  it  as  poor  as  silex  itself.  Look 
again  at  the  Prairies  of  the  W^st.  They  are  an  evi- 
dence at  once  that  my  doctrine  is  true.  They  are 
eternally  covered  with  sedge  or  grass,  and  are  as  rich 
as  land  can  possibly  be. 

The  nakedness  of  the  land  during  Winter  and  Sum- 
mer is  the  cause  of  its  impoverishment,  and  another 
grand  cause  is  the  constant  tillage  without  giving  the 
land  rest.  It  is  as  natural  for  the  soil  to  require  rest . 
as  man.  In  the  State  of  Delaware,  particularly  the 
lower  counties,  a  ruinous  mode  of  culture  has  been 
pursued  for  years.  The  land  is  mostly  held  by  the 
wealthy,  and  tenants  seldom  take  or  rent  a  farm  for 
more  than  one  year.  His  object  then  is  to  get  all  off 
the  land  he  possibly  can,  and  of  course  tills  all  he 
can.     They  practise  entirely  on  the  old  plan. 

1  beg  of  the  farmers  of  Maryland,  and  of  the  Uni- 
ted States,  to  follow  my  advice  as  it  respects  the 
mode  of  tilling,  and  put  their  farms  in  six  or  eight 
fields ;  and  my  word  for  it,  you  will  see  the  benefit 
which  will  follow.  You  will  discover  that  you  are  be- 
coming rich  as  well  as  your  land,  and  your  regret  will 
be,  that  you  did  not  know  this  mode  of  cultivation 
sooner. 

The  action  of  the  sun  on  the  naked  land,  is  like 
the  power  of  the  ravs  which  come  through  a  lens  or 
3* 


so  EYE. 

sun  glass.  The  focus,  which  is  formed  by  the  refrac- 
tion of  the  rays  in  passing  through  the  double  convex 
lens,  sets  on  fire  the  segar  or  any  other  object  present- 
ed ;  but  if  a  piece  of  muslin  or  any  other  substance 
is  interposed  between  the  lens  and  the  segar,  no  eflfect 
is  produced.  It  is  precisel}  the  case  with  land.  If 
the  sun  shines  down  on  its  naked  bosom,  the  gasses 
which  arise  from  it,  carry  off  into  the  atmosphere  the 
richest  particles  of  its  substance.  But  on  the  contra-, 
ry,  if  the  soil  be  covered  with  a  thick  coat  of  grass 
or  clover,  the  sun's  rays  are  excluded,  and  instead  of 
losing,  the  earth  is  continually  abstracting  nitre  from 
the  raics,  hails,  dews,  snows,  &c.  Strip  those  rich 
Prairies  of  the  West,  expose  the  surface  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  sun,  and  my  word  for  it,  they  will  every 
year  become  poorer,  though  no  crop  of  any  grain  may 
be  reaped  from  them.  1  repeat  it  again,  and  I  will  re- 
peat it  a  thousand  times,  that  the  soil  is  not  impover- 
ished by  what  is  taken  off  of  it,  only  that  when  culti- 
vated it  is  necessarily  more  or  less  exposed  to  the  sun. 
If  land  could  be  cultivated,  and  at  the  same  time 
covered  with  clover  from  the  sun's  rays,  I  should  have 
no  hesitation  in  saying,  that  so  far  from  becoming 
poor,  it  would  become  rich. 

There  is  a  piece  of  woodland  in  Delaware  once 
turned  out  as  a  common,  and  now  grown  up  in  oaks, 
which  has  become  rich.  I  recollect  having  noticed 
the  wheat  ridges,  where  fifty  or  sixty  years  ago  grain 
was  cultivated.    It  became  exhausted  and  was  turned 


OATS.  31 

out,  but  was  when  I  saw  it,  rich.     From  what  cause 
was  it  enriched  ?     From  the  growth  of  timber?    No. 


ON   THE    CULTIVATION  OF  OATS. 

I  will,  in  the  present  chapter,  give  my  mode  of  rais- 
ing a  double  crop  of  oats.  In  the  first  place,  you 
should  seed  your  oats  on  the  ground  that  remained  in 
clover  the  last  Fall,  and  one  thing  should  be  particu- 
larly observed  ;  the  oats  should  be  seeded  on  top  of 
the  ground,  and  ploughed  in  about  four  inches. 
Leave  your  land  in  ridges,  and  then  take  your  large 
fallow  harrow  and  harrow  the  ground  the  same  way 
you  ploughed  it,  and  pulverize  the  land  as  thorough- 
ly as  possible.  After  which,  clean  out  your  furrows, 
and  seed  the  land  with  clover,  timothy,  or  orchard 
grass.  The  roller  should  then  be  passed  over  the 
ground  crossways. 

You  now  have  turned  in  the  soil  together  with  the 
oats  in  the  manner  they  should  be.  The  roller  pass- 
ing over  the  land  leaves  it  packed  hard,  which  pre- 
pares it  to  resist  the  action  of  the  sun,  and  prevents 
the  evaporation  of  the  Nitre ;  which  is  the  strength 
of  the  land.  Your  oats  in  this  condition  will  soon 
come  up,  cover  the  ground,  and  shade  the  clover 
and  grass.  The  clover  and  grass  will  thus  be  screen^ 
ed  from  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  the  danger  of  being 
killed  ;  and  you  will  be  sure  to  realize  a  double  crop 


S2  OATS. 

of  oats.     This  is  not  imagination,  but  fact  from  expe- 
rience. 

When  you  have  harvested  your  oats,  you  should  by 
BO  means  pasture  your  oat  stubble,  inasmuch  as  your 
stock  will  eat  down  the  stubble  and  expose  the  earth 
to  the  sun,  which  I  have  repeatedly  said  is  ruinous  to 
any  land,  be  its  quality  ever  so  good.     Not  only  will 
the  land  be  injured,  but  the  clover  and  grass  will  be 
killed.     It  Is  evident  to  the  reason   of  any  man,  that 
the  earth  should  not  be  exposed  to  the  frosts  of  Win- 
ter, any  more  than  to  the  sun  of  Summer.     The  land, 
I  contend,  is  not  exhausted  by  what  grows  out  oj  it, 
but  by  the  evaporation  which  is  constantly  going  on 
Winter  and  Summer.     Wet  your  hand  for  example, 
and  mark  how  soon  it  becomes  dry  again  ;  but  if  you 
cover  your  wet  hand  with  putty,  it  will  require  hours  to 
dry.     Why  is  this  ?    Because  in  the  first  instance,  the 
hand  is   exposed    to   the  heat  of    the   atmosphere, 
which  vaporizes  the  water  and  causes  it  to  fly  off  in 
the  form  of  fine  steam.     But  in  the  case  of  the  cover- 
ed hand,  the  heat  of  the  atmosphere  is  excluded  ;  and 
hence  evaporation  cannot  take  place ;  or  if  it  does,  it 
is  in  a  very  imperfect  manner.     It  is  precisely  thus 
with  the  land  when  covered  or  uncovered.     To  have 
an  idea  how  rapidly  water  is  evaporated  by  heat,  ex- 
amine the  tea-kettle  or  the  steam  engine.     In  the  lat- 
ter machine,  gallons  of  water  are  evaporated  in  a  few 
hours.     The  quantity  which  arises  from  a  single  acre 
of  ground  in  twenty-four  hours,  has  been  ascertained 
to  be  immense. 


OATS.  S8 

How  wonderfully  and  how  wisely  is  every  thing  in 
nature  formed !  Observe,  for  instance,  the  process 
of  evaporation.  Were  evaporation  stopped^  the  hea- 
vens would  soon  exhibit  no  clouds  to  our  view ;  no 
rainbow  would  span  the  great  arch  above,  and  the 
earth  would  retain  all  its  water.  Hence  no  rain,  no 
dews,  no  frosts  would  fall  to  nourish  and  cherish  the 
products  of  the  earth.  The  washerwoman  might 
hang  out  her  clothes,  but  they  would  never  dry  ;  and 
even  the  sweat  which  pours  forth  on  the  body  of  man, 
would  always  remain  to  render  him  wet  and  misera- 
ble. How  wisely  formed  then  are  the  works  of  that 
sublime  Being,  who  spoke  the  universe  into  existence ! 
How  wisely  he  has  framed  every  thing  for  the  enjoy- 
ment of  man !  But  man,  ungrateful  man,  pays  no  re- 
gard to  His  gifts,  but  destroys  them  as  he  has  the  land, 
which  the  Deity  intended  never  should  wear  out. 

Now  that  the  land  should  never  be  left  naked  eith- 
er in  Winter  or  Summer,  may  be  proven  by  taking 
one  acre  of  land  and  planting  it  in  corn,  while  you 
suffer  another  acre  to  lie  idle  and  uncultivated  in  any 
grain;  yet  you  are  to  work  the  land  as  though  some- 
thing were  raised  on  it.  The  acre  which  is  culti- 
vated according  to  my  plan,  will  every  day  grow 
richer  and  richer;  whilst  the  other  acre,  which  is 
worked  every  day  without  any  product,  will  every 
day  become  poorer  and  poorer.  Is  not  this  a  proof 
of  the  position  assumed }  h  not  this  a  proof  that  the 
land  is  not  exhausted  by  what   is   grown  upon  it? 


34 


GRASSES. 


Let  it  be  impressed  upon  your  mind,  that  you  are 
never  to  take  but  one  crop  from  your  land  each  year, 
the  balance  to  remain  on  the  land  to  preserve  it  from, 
the  sun  in  Summer,  and  the  frosts  in  Winter.  Every 
other  process  will  tend  to  impoverish  your  land,  and 
render  you  poorer  in  purse. 


ON    SEEDING 

AND     RAISING    THE     GRASS    CROP. 

Among  the  many  improvements  and  advantages  yet 
to  be  studied  by  the  Agriculturists  of  this  and  other 
States,  there  are  none  more  important  than  those 
which  concern  the  cultivation  of  the  grass  or  hay  crop; 
I  mean  the  modes  which  I  recommend.  Notwith- 
standing the  evident  benefit  and  great  advantages  in 
point  of  saving,  it  appears  exceedingly  difficult  to  per- 
suade our  planters  of  the  value  of  my  plans,  and  the 
truth  of  my  theory.  1  am  of  opinion,  however,  that 
one  experiment  described  will  entirely  remove  their 
obstinacy ;  and  I  trust  for  the  benefit  of  all  concern- 
ed, that  there  are  few  who  will  refuse  one  effort,  no 
matter  on  how  small  a  scale,  to  remove  all  prejudice. 
I  am  perfectly  satisfied  that  the  period  will  very 
soon  arrive,  when  every- intelligent  agriculturist  will 
acknowledge  the  truth  of  my  theory. 

The  proper  time  for  seeding  grass  or  clover,  is 


GRASSES.  35 

whenever  the  ground  is  in  order;  that  is^  whenever 
you  seed  your  wheat,  oats,  &c.  So  soon  as  corn  is 
ripe  and  tit  to  take  from  the  ground,  the  field  should 
be  seeded  down  in  clover  and  timothy.  Buckwheat 
should  be  sown  upon  the  field,  for  the  purpose  of 
nnore  effectually  shielding  the  land  from  the  sun, 
and  also  of  protecting  the  clover  and  timothy. 

Clover,  timothy,  and  indeed  all  kinds  of  grasses 
which  are  intended  to  be  cut  for  hay,  should  never  be 
scattered  out  of  the  swarth ;  because  in  addition  to 
the  labour  of  scattering  and  again  raking  it  up,  the 
hay  is  greatly  injured.  If  indeed  the  weather  be  fa- 
vorable, it  should  not  be  scattered  ;  for  the  action  of 
the  sun  destroys  the  sweetness  of  the  hay  and  grass. 
The  action  of  the  air  is  all  that  is  necessary  when  the 
hay  is  curing.  The  less  it  is  exposed,  the  greater 
will  be  its  value,  and  less  the  labour  required.  Suf- 
fer the  hay  to  lie  in  swarths,  until  about  two-thirds  of 
the  upper  part  be  sufficiently  cured.  This,  in  good 
weather,  will  be  accomplished  in  eight  or  ten  hours ; 
and  if  the  swarth  be  light,  in  a  less  time. 

When  the  top  is  cured,  turn  the  swarth  bottom 
upwards;  let  it  lie  until  cured  like  the  first,  and 
then  throw  three  swarths  together,  and  place  reg- 
ularly in  rows.  When  carting  in,  drive  between  the 
two  rows  and  load  from  each.  It  is  hardly  necessa- 
ry to  observe,  that  all  these  operations  must  be  per- 
formed after  the  dews  have  dried  off.  It  should  be 
recollected  that  clover  will  keep  with  less  drying 


S6  GRASSES. 

than  almost  any  other  grass,  by  applying  a  layer  of 
clover  and  a  sprinkle  of  salt;  and  then  there  is  no  fear 
of  your  horses  having  what  is  called  the  water- brash j 
or  a  running  at  the  mouth. 

Your  layers,  sprinkled  with  salt,  should  rise  to 
about  eight  to  twelve  inches  thick,  each  layer.  These 
should  be  continued  on  top  of  each  other,  until  all 
your  hay  is  prepared. 

If  desirable,  you  may  apply  a  layer  of  wheat  straw 
between  every  two  layers  of  clover,  by  which  your 
straw  will  imbibe  the  juice  of  the  clover,  and  become 
almost  equal  to  some  kinds  of  hay. 

The  proper  test  when  clover  is  cured,  is  to  take  up 
a  handful  and  give  it  a  twist;  if  no  juice  issues,  it  is 
cured.  I  have  often  cut  clover  in  the  morning  and 
hauled  it  in,  in  the  evening;  and  generally  the  suc- 
ceeding day,  unless  bad  weather  prevented.  When 
the  above  mode  is  pursued  of  salting  clover  or  any 
kind  of  grass,  cattle  are  extremely  fond  of  it.  Far- 
mers will  find,  that  clover  hay  is  the  cheapest  food  on 
which  they  can  keep  their  stock  in  good  order  during 
the  Winter;  especially  if  put  up  in  good  order,  and 
sheltered  from  bad  weather.  Both  horses  and  cattle 
will  keep  fat  on  it  throughout  the  Winter,  without  the 
aid  of  grain,  except  when  worked. 

Clover,  when  put  up  in  stacks,  will  not  resist  the 
rays  as  well  as  timothy  and  other  grasses.  Clover 
should  be  cut  for  hay  when  one  half  of  the  head  be-r 
comes  of  a  brown  color.     If  cut  earlier,  it  is  be- 


VEGETABLES. 


37 


lieved  that  it  will  not  be  so  nutritious.  If  cut  la- 
ter, the  stem  will  become  hardened  and  it  will  lose 
its  substance. 

For  hogs  and  stock  that  are  young,  clover  may 
be  cut  so  soon  as  in  full  bloom ;  of  which  they  are 
excessively  fond.  They  might  I  think  be  wintered 
on  it. 

When  the  farmer  can  do  it,  he  will  find  it  advanta- 
geous to  provide  himself  with  long  narrow  sheds, 
open  all  round  for  the  preservation  of  hay  of  all 
kinds.  Under  these  sheds,  let  the  hay  be  put  down 
in  layers  as  mentioned  above.  By  this  mode  you 
will  be  able  to  preserve  your  hay  in  a  much  better 
manner  than  in  cocks  or  stacks.  As  yet  there  are 
few  persons  in  this  country  sufficiently  expert  in  the 
art  as  to  insure  its  preservation  without  narrow  sheds. 
All  farmers  who  have  no  sheds  or  barns,  should  cap 
the  top  of  their  stacks  of  clover  with  some  other 
kind  of  hay,  which  will  insure  its  preservation. 


ON    THE 

CULTIVATION    OF  V  EGETABLES. 

The  ground  which  you  intend  for  a  Truck  Patch 

the  next  Spring,  if  not  in  clover  the  present  Fall, 

should  be  covered  with  some  kind  of  hay  or  leaves 

from  the  woods,  and  brush.     The  brush  is  to  prevent 
4 


..^^iAVt''^ 


38  VEGETABLES. 

your  leaves  from  blowing  away.  From  six  to  ten  inch- 
es deep  you  should  cover  the  ground,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preventing  the  Nitre  from  evaporating  during 
the  time  the  land  is  frozen  ;  for  that  is  the  time  the 
land  loses  its  strength.  By  preventing  its  freezing 
during  the  Winter  season,  it  will  improve  on  the  prin- 
ciples advanced  in  former  pages.  The  rains  and 
snows  will  run  down  through  the  hay  and  leaves,  and 
thus  enrich  the  soil. 

So  soon  as  the  Spring  is  open,  you  should  rake  off 
the  hay  or  other  covering,  and  set  fire  to  it.  You  are 
then  prepared  to  proceed  in  the  cultivation  of  your 
vegetables,  in  your  own  favorite^  manner.  When 
your  crop  is  ended,  you  should  seed  your  land  down 
in  clover  or  timothy,  as  you  have  been  recommended 
to  do  your  corn  land.  The  next  harvest  you  will  be 
able  to  reap  a  crop  of  clover  and  timothy. 

As  an  experiment,  you  should  plant  a  quantity  of 
vegetables  on  the  south  side  of  your  fence,  which  has 
been  standing  for  a  number  of  years  and  has  become 
rich,  by  being  covered  and  shaded  from  the  sun  in  the 
Summer,  and  the  frosts  in  the  Winter,  by  the  grass 
and  weeds  which  grow  under  the  fence.  After  your 
fence  has  stood  a  few  years  in  the  same  place,  you 
will  rake  up  the  manure  from  under  those  fence 
locks,  and  consider  it  good ;  and  then  you  will 
divide  it  on  your  other  lands,  whichyou  have  suffered 
to  lie  exposed  by  your  very  improper  mode  of  culti- 
vatioH.     This  you  have  done  while  in  the  corn  crop 


ON    VEGETATION.  39 

in  the  summer,  and  you  have  also  left  it  naked  in  win- 
ter. 

But  if  you  adopt  my  plan,  your  fields  in  a  few  years 
will  become  as  rich,  and  even  richer,  than  the  soil  un- 
der your  fences ;  and  you  will  need  no  more  manure 
than  is  made  on  your  farm  by  the  genial  hand  of  na- 
ture. It  must  be  here  understood  that  there  must  be  ^ 
a  soil,  or  my  system  falls  to  the  ground.  If  the  land 
is  composed  of  nothing  but  silex  or  sand,  nature  can  ^ 
do  nothing  in  enriching  it.  But  there  are  none  of  our  \ 
farms  but  have  a  soil,  and  by  a  soil  I  mean  earthy  ^ 
substance,  in  which  more  or  less  vegetable  matter  is  ^^ 
mixed.  The  next  chapter  will  more  fully  explain  \ 
what  I  mean  by  vegetable  matter.         njcj^d/j  <- 


PHILOSOPHICAL    DiSaUISITION    ON    VEGETATION. 

A  plant  or  a  tree  as  well  as  man,  is  an  organized 
body,  endowed  by  nature  with  particularly  construct- 
ed parts,  which  perform  certain  functions,  from  which 
proceed  the  principle  we  call  life.  Mineral  bodies, 
in  contradistinction  to  these,  appear  to  be  more  the 
creatures  of  chance,  formed  by  chymical  and  mechan- 
ical attraction.  Design  is  marked  on  every  arrange- 
ment of  the  animal  or  vegetable  parts,  and  that  unt 
known  principle  of  Z^/e,  which  has  puzzled  philoso- 
phers froixi  the  foi^ndation  of  the  world.>   How  life 


,  ^^ 


40  ON  VEGETATION. 

causes  the  animal  and  vegetable  organs  to  perform 
their  wonderful  functions,  vv^ill  perhaps  never  be 
known  to  any  but  the  great  Author  of  Life  and  Ar- 
chitect of  the  Universe. 

Nature  deals  in  simple  substances,  as  well  as  simple 
operations.  All  organized  bodies,  whether  of  the 
animal  or  vegetable  kingdom,  are  made  up  of  a  great 
many  compounds,  which  however  result  from  a  few 
elementary  principles.  Animals  are  composed  of 
carbon,  oxygen,  hydrogen  and  nitrogen;  while  the 
composition  of  vegetables  is  carbon,  oxygen  and  hy- 
drogen, These  are  the  component  or  constituen^t 
parts  of  animals  and  vegetables,  yet  there  are  many 
other  substances ;  but  which,  as  they  are  not  essen- 
tial to  organized  life,  are  not  component  parts.  These 
substances  are  silex,  sulphur,  lime,  phosphorus,  iron, 
&c.  It  is  recorded  as  a  fact,  that  there  is  suflBcient 
iron  in  the  blood  of  forty-eight  men,  to  make  a 
ploughshare  weighing  twenty-seven  pounds. 

So  long  as  life  exists  in  the  animal  or  vegetable, 
the  simple  bodies  which  enter  into  their  composition 
are  susceptible  of  only  certain  combinations  ;  but  the 
moment  life  ceases  and  death  ensues,  new  combina- 
tions are  formed.  A  new  order  of  attraction  ensues, 
the  moment  the  old  one  is  destroyed;  and  hence 
comes  putrefaction  and  decay.  Were  it  not  that 
these  effects  are  produced,  the  dead  vegetable  or  ani- 
mal would  always  retain  its  natural  appearance  and 
form.     But  this  is  not  the  case,  and  though  we  embalm, 


ON    VEGETATION.  41 

dry  or  preserve  in  any  manner  the  animal  or  vegeta- 
ble, yet  finally  in  the  course  of  time,  it  will  crumble 
to  dust.  How  wisely  has  the  Great  Disposer  of 
Events  ordered  this !  By  this  universal  decay  of  an- 
imal and  vegetable  matter,  by  thus  returning  to  origi- 
nal principles,  which  go  back  into  the  earth,  the 
new  plant  and  the  new  animal  are  nourished  and  sus- 
tained. Thus  one  vegetable  rises  out  of  the  earth, 
flourishes,  decays,  dies,  and  returns  to  first  principles, 
from  which  another  plant  is  nourished,  and  that  plant 
nourishes  another  animal.  Who  knows  but  the  dust 
of  the  mighty  Caesar,  or  the  famed  Alexander,  may 
have  stopped  the  chink  of  some  peasant's  log  cabin, 
or  have  nourished  some  gay  flower  or  noxious  weed? 
It  is  not  at  all  improbable.  The  bones  of  the  heroes 
who  fell  upon  the  field  of  Waterloo,  when  the  star  of 
Napoleon's  glory  went  down  in  blood,  have  been  sold 
by  the  load  to  feed  and  fatten  the  soil.  No  doubt 
but  many  an  ear  of  corn  has  sprung  from  the  relics  of 
those,  to  whom  Napoleon  once  spoke  and  pointed  to 
the  path  of  fame.  O  Tempora  !  O  Mores  !  What 
is  human  glory  !  What  the  blast  of  fame ! 

There  is  a  mutual  reciprocity  throughout  nature. 
From  the  dead  animal  and  vegetable  spring  the  living 
ones ;  and  there  is,  besides,  a  mutual  dependence  ex- 
isting between  man  and  the  vegetable  kingdom.  It 
is  well  known,  that  neither  flame  nor  animal  life  can 
exist  without  oxygen ;  and  it  is  equally  well  known, 

that  plants,  trees,  &c.  are  continually  throwing  oflF  in- 
4* 


42  ON   VEGETATION. 

to  the  atmosphere  the  oxygen  gas,  which  man  breathes. 
He,  on  the  contrary,  throws  off  from  his  lungs  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  which  is  breathed  in  by  the  leaves  of 
trees,  plants,  &c.  Here,  then,  is  one  reason  why  we 
are  exhilirated  in  a  flower  garden.  Living  flowers 
are  healthy,  but  dead  ones  are  quite  the  reverse, 
and  should  never  be  kept  in  a  bed-room,  as  they 
throw  out  noxious  gasses  or  effluvia. 

It  is  to  be  understood  by  the  reader,  that  the  object 
of  this  work  is  practical,  and,  therefore,  I  shall  dwell 
only  on  those  parts  of  the  philosophy  of  vegetation, 
which  will  have  a  tendency  to  elucidate  this  work, 
and  throw  light  upon  the  new  theory  which  I  have  ad- 
vaaced,  and  which  I  have  no  doubt  will  be  adopted 
when  better  understood.  I  wish  the  reader  particu- 
larly to  understand,  that  the  author  has  not  advanced 
his  theory  from  the  stores  of  his  imagination  merely, 
but  from  the  practice  of  many  years  in  the  State  of , 
Delaware,  where  he  possessed  every  facility  for  ex- 
periment. 

It  has  been  asserted  in  this  work,  that  the  soil  is 
not  exhausted  by  what  is  taken  from  it  in  the  form  of 
product;  but  by  the  exposure  of  the  surface  to  the 
sun  in  Summer,  and  the  frosts  in  Winter.  The  wood- 
land is  an  example  of  this.  If  the  old  theory  be  cor- 
rect, there  would  not  be  nourishment  sufficient  in  the 
earth  to  supply  so  many  lofty  oaks,  placed  so  near 
each  other.  On  the  contrary,  we  find  that  wood  land 
becomes  gradually  rich,  and  if  covered  with  clover, 
would  more  rapidly  become  so. 


ON   VEGETATIOK.  43 

The  roots  of  a  tree  consiitale  evidently  the  stom- 
ach, corresponding  to  that  of  man.  This  stomach,  or 
the  fine  fibres  of  the  roots,  takes  up  vegetable  matter, 
vrhich  is  ver}^  minutely  dissolved  in  water,  and  con- 
veys the  fluid,  w^hich  is  like  the  chyle  when  it  leaves 
the  animal  stomach,  up  the  alburnum,  or  heart  wood, 
to  the  lungs  or  leaves ;  for  it  is  evident  that  the  leaves 
of  a  plant  or  tree  constitute  the  lungs.  Now  when 
the  chyle,  (or  milky  fluid,)  leaves  the  stomach  of  the 
animal,  it  is  not  blood,  and  has  not  the  power  to  nour- 
ish and  do  the  offices  of  blood,  until  it  enters  the  lungs 
and  becomes  oxydized  by  absorbing  the  oxygen  from 
the  atmosphere,  when  it  becomes  red,  and  is  sent  to 
all  parts  of  the  body.  It  is  precisely  so  with  the  sap 
or  blood  of  the  tree.  So  soon  as  it  reaches  the 
leaves,  it  is  elaborated  or  changed  in  its  properties  by 
the  action  of  the  air ;  and  it  is  for  this  purpose  that 
Nature  formed  the  leaf  so  large  and  thin,  giving  a 
large  surface  to  the  action  of  the  air.  When  the  sap 
is  properly  changed  by  the  action  of  the  atmosphere 
through  the  surface  of  the  leaf,  it  is  sent  down  the 
tree  between  the  cortical  layers^  and  deposits  as  it 
goes  the  woody  matter,  which  gradually  hardens  into 
wood. 

Here  we  see  the  wisdom  of  God  in  the  wonders  of 
the  vegetable  creation.  I  mean,  the  great  similitude 
or  resemblance  between  the  animal  and  the  vegetable 
creation;  particularly  in  the  circulation  of  the  blood, 
in  each.     The  roots  represent  the  stomach  in  the  an- 


44  SWEET   POTATOES. 

imal ;  the  holes  or  pores  in  the  alburnum^  are  the 
veins ;  the  leaves  are  the  lungs,  and  the  delicate  corti- 
cal layers^  the  veins.  The  only  difference  is,  that 
the  organs  and  functions  of  the  animal  are  much  more 
complicated  than  those  of  the  vegetable.  In  Winter, 
when  the  circulation  of  the  tree  ceases,  and  the  leaves 
are  no  longer  required  as  lungs,  they  drop  off,  and 
give  back  to  the  earth  vegetable  matter,  spreading  be- 
fore man  as  they  fall,  a  beautiful  emblem  of  mor- 
tality. 


ON    THE 

CULTIVATION  OF  THE  SWEET  POTATO. 

The  seed  of  the  sweet  potato  should  be  selected 
in  the  Fall,  when  the  crop  is  housed.  Potatoes  in 
Winter  should  be  put  away  in  dry  sand,  in  a  hole 
made  for  the  purpose  under  the  kitchen  floor,  near  the 
hearth,  where  they  can  neither  be  frosted  nor  freeze. 
About  the  first  of  March,  a  hot-bed  should  be  made 
large  enough  to  contain  whatever  quantity  of  seed 
you  should  wish  to  plant.  The  piece  of  ground  you 
intend  for  a  hot-bed,  should  be  in  a  warm  place  on  the 
south  side  of  your  house  or  fence.  Dig  up  the 
ground  from  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches  deep,  removs 
that  dirt,  and  then  fill  up  the  space  thus  made  with 
the  best  rotted  stable  manure,  nearly  to  the  top ;  say 
within  four  inches. 


SWEET   POTATOES.  45 

Now  take  your  sweet  potato,  and  place  them  near- 
ly touching  each  other ;  then  cover  them  with  rich 
mould  about  four  inches  deep,  and  by  the  middle  of 
May,  or  the  first  of  June,  your  potatoes  will  sprout 
and  come  through  the  ground  from  eight  to  ten  inch- 
es. Potatoes  at  this  time  will  have  no  roots.  Your 
ground  should  be  prepared  and  put  jn  perfect  order, 
and  if  a  sandy  soil,  manure  it  with  hog  manure. 
Make  your  hill  about  eighteen  or  twenty  inches  high, 
and  so  soon  as  your  ground  is  in  order,  then  go  to 
your  hot  bed  and  break  up  one  side,  from  which  take 
up  the  potatoes  carefully.  The  sprouts  should  not 
be  broken  off.  Take  them  to  the  hill,  dig  a  hole  in 
the  top  deep  enough  to  set  in  the  potato,  and  leave 
the  top  of  the  sprout  about  three  inches  above  the  top 
of  the  hill.  Then  the  potato  will  commence  grow- 
ing again,  and  as  soon  as  your  hills  become  grassy, 
you  should  pick  it  off  carefully  from  the  top  and  weed 
down  the  sides  two  or  three  time^,  or  until  the  vines 
begin  to  cover  the  hills.  Then  take  your  hoe  and  hill 
up  those  hills,  until  you  nearly  cover  the  tops  of  the 
vines.  Treat  your  hills  in  this  manner  two  or  three 
times,  and  your  cultivation  will  be  finished.  By  the 
first  of  September,  if  the  weather  be  seasonable,  your 
potatoes  will  be  large  enough  for  the  table.  So  soon 
as  the  frost  kills  the  tops  of  the  vines,  you  may  dig 
them,  as  they  will  then  cease  to  grow.  It  appears 
that  frost  is  fatal  to  all  vegetation,  and  if  so  powerful 
on  vegetation,  why  not  on  the  soil  which  produces 
that  vegetation? 


46  IRISH    POTATOES. 

ON    THE 

CULTIVATION  OF  IRISH  POTATOES. 

I  now  intend  to  draw  the  reader's  attention  to  my 
plan  for  cultivating  Irish  potatoes.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  necessary  to  show  the  difference  in  the  growth  of 
the  Irish  and  sweet  potato.  The  former  grows  up- 
ward from  the  side,  the  latter  downwards;  therefore, 
it  is  necessary  to  plant  your  Irish  potatoes  as  deep  as 
you  can ;  say  from  twelve  to  fifteen  inches.  This 
crop  is  for  your  Fall  and  Winter  potatoes. 

When  you  prepare  your  land,  plough  your  furrows 
two  or  three  times  in  the  same  place,  so  as  to  make 
the  furrow  as  deep  as  you  can;  say  from  fifteen  to 
eighteen  inches.  Then  drop  your  potatoes  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  furrow.  If  they  are  cut,  they  should  be 
split  lengthways  ;  then  put  about  six  inches  of  stable 
manure  on  tlie  potatoes,  after  which  cover  the  whole 
with  five  or  six  inches  of  rich  mould. 

So  soon  as  your  potatoes  come  up,  work  the  dirt  to 
the  hill ;  and  by  so  doing,  you  will  cover  up  the  grass, 
which  will  destroy  it.  By  this  process,  the  soil  will 
always  remain  light  round  the  potatoes,  and  they  will 
always  be  well  covered.  The  cooler  they  are  kept 
the  better,  while  growing.  Kept  reasonably  cool, 
they  grow  larger,  dryer,  and  the  skin  is  remarkably 
thin.  Potatoes  raised  in  this  manner,  are  so  mealy 
that  they  fall  to  pieces  when  boiled. 


IRISH   POTATOES.  47 

In  cultivating  early  potatoes,  I  should  plant  the  first 
of  December;  and  would  prepare  my  ground  in  the 
following  manner:  I  would  take  a  piece  of  land  that 
was  in  clover,  and  plough  one  iurrow;  then  drop  or 
plant  my  potatoes  in  that  furrow.  I  would  then  collect 
some  coarse  stable  manure  and  cover  the  potatoes 
about  three  inches  thick,  then  turn  the  next  clover  sod 
on  the  potatoes,  and  then  go  on  to  flush  the  clover  un- 
til time  for  another  row  ;  say  about  three  feet  six  inch- 
es. The  next  row  should  be  planted  in  the  same 
manner.  The  potatoes  should  be  dropped  about  three 
inches  apart.  As  before  observed,  split  your  pota- 
toes lengthways,  and  make  four  quarters. 

When  you  have  planted  your  crop,  take  your  roller 
and  roll  the  ground  as  hard  as  you  can;  after  whi^ch,* 
take  your  cart  and  haul  a  quantity  of  old  hay  or  straw, 
from  your  barn  yard,  or  leaves  from  the  woods,  and 
cover  your  potato  patch  all  over,  about  six  or  eight 
inches  thick.  In  the  next  place  you  should  haul  some 
kind  of  brush,  which  will  serve  to  prevent  the  wind 
from  blowing  away  the  hay  or  leaves.  In  doing  this, 
you  not  only  enhance  the  value  of  your  land,  but  your 
potatoes  will  be  protected  from  the  frosts  of  Winter ; 
and  you  will  have  new  potatoes  on  your  table  from 
one  month  to  six  weeks  sooner  than  your  neighbor, 
who  plants  his  in  the  Spring.  So  soon  as  the  genial 
breeze  of  Spring  returns,  and  the  hard  freezing  of 
Winter  is  over,  you  should  have  the  leaves  taken 
from  over  the    potatoes  and  carried  to  your  cow- 


48^  IRISH   POTATOES. 

yards,  where  they  will  undergo  decomposition,  and 
be  resolved  into  good  manure*  Thus  the  leaves  will 
subserve  a  double  purpose. 

The  common  potato,  the  Solanum  Tuberosum  of 
Natural  History,  was  originally  found  in  the  woods  of 
America,  from  whence  it  was  carried  to  Ireland,  and 
afterwards  to  England,  w^here  it  flourished  so  well 
that  it  took  the  name  of  Irish  potato.  Its  introduc- 
tion into  these  countries,  was  about  the  beginning  of 
the  Seventeenth  Century.  There  are  many  species 
of  the  Irish  potato,  but  it  is  useless  to  enumerate  them 
here. 

There  are  a  variety  of  insects,  worms,  grubs,  &c., 
which  commit  their  ravages  on  the  potato;  but  besides 
these,  it  is  subject  to  several  diseases,  among  which  is 
the  curl^  which  affects  the  root.  .  Agriculturists  have 
long  endeavored  to  account  for  this  disease;  some 
thinking  it  a  blight,  others  that  it  is  caused  by  frosts, 
after  being  planted,  or  by  improper  planting.  The 
disease  is  divided,  by  some  authors,  into  three  stages. 
First,  the  half  curl^  in  which  the  leaves  are  long  and 
curled.  The  season  must  be  very  good,  or  the  pota- 
toes are  small  and  watery.  Second^  the  full  curl,  in 
which  stage  the  potatoes  scarcely  attain  the  height  of 
seven  inches ;  arrive  soon  at  maturity,  and  soon  de- 
cay. The  potatoes  are  of  a  dark  red  color,  and  are 
not  so  large  as  a  nutmeg.  In  the  third  stage,  they  are 
called  corrupted  potatoes.  In  this  stage  they  do  not 
appear  above  the  ground,  are  very  small  and  very 


IRISH   POTATOES.  49 

few.  After  the  curl,  comes  another  disease  called 
the  scabj  by  which  is  meant  excrescences,  and  then  the 
canker^  caused  by  little  cavities,  which  make  their 
appearance  in  wet  weather.  These  by  some,  are 
considered  to  be  the  cause  of  the  curl,  and  they  be- 
come worse  when  the  potato  remains  long  in  the 
earth,  after  time  for  harvesting. 

The  proper  time  for  digging  potatoes  is  in  autumn, 
when  the  weather  is  dry,  and  when  the  stems  and 
leaves  begin  to  decay.  If  fields  are  planted  in  pota- 
toes, they  should  be  ploughed  up,  taking  care  to  take 
off  the  coulter  of  the  plough  to  prevent  cutting  them. 
When  those  which  are  turned  up  by  the  plough 
are  carried  away,  a  drag  may  be  used  to  obtain 
those  potatoes  which  remain  covered  up.  But  if 
the  potatoes  are  cultivated  on  a  small  scale,  they 
may  be  dug  with  the  hoe,  or  other  implement. 

The  potato  is  a  great  vegetable  luxury,  and  forms 
a  great  part  of  the  food  of  the  Irish  people.  Pota- 
toes, when  boiled,  are  excellent  food  for  hogs  and 
poultry.  The  fattest  fowls  I  ever  beheld,  were  fed 
almost  exclusively  on  them.  For  farm  horses,  pota- 
toes are  very  good.  Mr.  Bradley,  in  his  Notes  on 
Husbandry,  proves  their  superiority  over  Indian 
corn. 

Many  modes  have  been  suggested,  for  preserving 
in  winter,  this  valuable  vegetable.  The  most  com- 
mon way,  is  to  deposit  them  in  pits  dug  in  the  earth, 
and  to  cover  them  first  with  dry  straw,  and  then  with 


50  IBISH  POTATOES^r 

earth.  They  keep  in  this  mawner  a  long  time,  provi- 
ded they  are  kept  dry.  Another  plan  is,  to  pile  them 
up  in  the  form  of  a  roof,  to  cover  them  as  before  with 
straw  and  afterwards  with  earth.  There  are  many 
other  modes  of  preserving  potatoes  ;  these  appear  to 
me  to  be  the  simplest  and  best.  In  Pennsylvania, 
they  are  kept  in  a  vault,  under  the  barn  \  but,  accord- 
ing to  my  experience,  they  become  green  when  laid 
upon  a  floor,  or  in  any  way  exposed  to  the  air.  They 
should  in  all  cases  be  kept  dry,  and  as  much  excluded 
from  the  atmosphere  as  possible.  Could  ihey  be  put 
up  in  jars,  and  stopped  tightly,  I  have  not  a  doubt  but 
that  they  would  keep  good  for  years.  It  is  said  that 
they  are  kept  for  sea  stores,  by  slicing  them,  baking 
them  slightly,  and  then  packing  them  down  in  jars. 
A  beautiful  starch  is  made  from  Irish  potatoes,  far 
superior  to  that  which  is  made  from  wheat.  The  po- 
tatoes are  first  rasped,  after  being  peeled,  and  the 
pulp  placed  in  a  cloth  and  subjected  to  pressure. 
The  juice,  which  is  caught  in  a  basin,  is  mixed  with 
an  equal  quantity  of  water,  and  set  away  in  a  shallow 
vessel  where  it  will  not  be  disturbed.  In  a  few  hours 
the  sediment  will  be  deposited  at  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel,  which  to  render  it  beautifully  white,  should 
be  washed  two  or  three  times,  to  free  it  from  the  im- 
purities which  it  may  contain. 


ARTICHOKES.  M 


ON    ARTICHOKES. 

There  are  many  articles  which  might  be  cultivated 
to  great  advantage  by  the  farmer,  were  there  not  that 
lear  existing  of  going  out  of  the  path  which  their  fa- 
thers trod,  and  of  trying  new  experiments.  Among 
the  number  may  be  enumerated  the  artichoke. 

The  artichoke  is  as  easily  cultivated  as  the  pota- 
to, and  the  cultivation  is  the  same,  with  this  differ- 
ence, that  the  artichoke  should  be  planted  earlier,  the 
latest  period  being  not  later  than  March.  It  produ- 
ces a  beautiful  shade,  especially  the  Jerusalem  firti- 
choke,  under  which  no  weeds  will  thrive.  Nearly 
all  animals  are  fond  of  it,  even  more  so  than  of  the 
potato  when  cooked. 

Some  culturists  have  declared,  that  the  potato  is 
superior  to  turnips  or  beets  as  food  for  cattle,  and,  if 
so,  the  artichoke  is  superior  to  them  all ;  for,  when 
cooked,  it  is  certainly  superior  to  the  potato.  And 
then  the  expense  of  cultivation  is  only  the  same;  itii^ 
proof  against  injury  from  frost,  is  more  nutritious  to  an- 
imals, leaves  the  land  clean,  and  yields  from  twenty  to 
forty  per  cent,  more  than  potatoes.  There  is  but  one 
thing  to  be  opposed  to  its  cultivation,  and  that  is  the 
care  which  is  necessary  in  digging  them,  it  being  well 
known  that  if  any  are  left  in  the  ground,  they  will 
vegetate  the  next  year.  This,  however,  is  no  great 
inconveriience. 


52  GftOVMD   NUTS. 

It  is  a  fact  well  authenticated,  that  cattle  will  eat 
them  with  greater  avidity  than  the  potato,  and  that 
they  will  thrive  faster  upon  them.  I  have  seen  calves 
eat  them  without  refusal.  Then  the  beauty  of  the 
matter  is  the  great  yield.  The  experiment  being  tried 
upon  a  quarter  of  an  acre,  it  was  found  that  the  arti- 
chokes yielded  at  the  rate  of  upwards  of  600  bush- 
els, whilst  the  potatoes  came  out  a  little  more  than 
half.  In  a  very  dry  season,  the  experiment  was  again 
tried,  and  the  artichoke  gave  one  hundred  and  fifty 
bushejb^^w^hile  the  potatoes  produced  nothing.  Five 
hundred  and  seventy  bushels  vrere  produced  in  the  fol- 
lowing year  on  an  acre.  A  half  acre  of  the  same 
land,  highly  manured,  produced  in  turnips  less  than 
three  hundred  bushels. 

From  this  it  will  be  seen,  that  the  crop  of  arti* 
chokes  was  the  most  plentiful,  as  well  as  most  profit- 
able; and  I  would  recommend  the  enterprising  far- 
mer to  use  some  of  his  land  in  this  product,  instead 
of  reaping  a  meagre  crop  of  wheat,  corn,  or  other 
grains. 


ON   GROUND    NUTS. 

Among  the  many  articles  to  which  the  farmer 
could  turn  his  attention,  there  is  none  which  would 
prove  more  profitable  than  the  cultivation  of  ground 


C^RODND   KCTS.  68 

huts;  or,  as  they  are  sometimes  called,  pea  nuts. 
They  are  of  easy  cultivation,  and  require  compara- 
tively but  litllB  attention.  Thousands  of  bushels  are 
imported  from  the  West  Indies,  and  yet  they  are  fre- 
quently so  scarce  as  to  sell  at  from  three  to  four  dol- 
lars per  bushel.  They  require  a  warm  sandy  soil, 
and  there  are  thousands  and  thousands  of  acres  in 
Maryland,  Delaware,  Virginia,  and  other  Middle  and 
Southern  States,  which  do  not  produce  five  dollars  in 
value  per  acre,  which  might,  if  cultivated  in  ground 
nuts,  bring  an  amount  which  would  astonish  the  culti- 
vator. 

Wherever  the  sweet  potato  thrives,  there  also  will 
the  ground  nut  flourish  luxuriantly;  for  both  grow  best 
in  a  light  sandy  soil.  There  is  one  peculiarity  attend- 
ing the  cultivation  of  the  ground  nut,  which  is,  that 
the  nut  comes  from  the  blossom,  though  it  grows  like 
the  potato  under  ground.  This  is  different  from  any 
other  production  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 

The  ground  inlended  to  be  planted  in  ground  nuts, 
should  be  dug  up  and  perfectly  mellowed,  without  a 
tree  or  any  other  object  to  cast  a  shade  upon  it,  for 
the  sun's  rays  are  absolutely  necessary.  The  nuts  may 
be  planted  somewhat  like  corn,  only  not  so  far  apart. 
Put  two  or  three  nuts  in  a  hill,  and  let  the  hills  be 
about  eighteen  inches  or  two  feet  apart  each  way. 
When  the  vines  run,  they  will  meet  and  till  the  ground. 
They  should  be  planted  as  early  in  the  Spring  as  pos- 
sible, to  avoid  frost ;  say  in  April,  or  the  first  of  May. 
6* 


54  MELONS. 

After  the  vines  spread,  they  require  no  attention  fur- 
ther than  to  go  among  them  every  morning,  and  vsrith 
a  hoe  cover  up  every  blossom  that  is  to  be  seen.  For 
convenience,  the  ground  should  be  in  long  beds,  so 
that  the  cultivator  may  walk  between  them  without 
treading  on  the  vines.  When  all  the  vines  are  cover- 
ed, a  considerable  bed  of  earth  will  have  been  raised 
on  the  original  one,  and  in  this  bed,  and  from  the 
blossoms  so  covered  up,  will  spring  a  mass  of  nuts  as 
thick  together  as  they  can  grow.  In  half  a  yard 
square  of  ground,  I  have  raised  a  peck  of  very  large 
nuts.  An  acre  of  ground  would  produce  to  the 
amount  .of  several  hundred  dollars.  The  nuts  are 
much  larger  and  better  than  those  brought  from  the 
West  Indies. 


CULTIVATION   OF    MELONS. 

As  the  watermelon  is  one  of  the  most  delicious  lux- 
uries of  our  Summer  season,  it  is  proper  that  all  the 
light  which  experience  has  gathered  concerning  its 
cultivation,  should  be  given  to  the  community.  There 
is  no  production  of  the  earth  which  improves  more 
by  cultivation  than  the  watermelon.  From  a  small 
worthless  article,  it  may  by  cultivation  be  brought  to 
a  large  delicious  fruit,  frequently  weighing  from 
twenty  to  thirty  pounds.  I  shall  give  the  best  mode 
of  cultivating  them  with  which  I  am  acquainted. 


MfeLOK§.  55 

To  prepare  the  ground,  holes  should  be  dug  about 
one  or  two  feet  square,  and  about  as  deep,  and  fill  them  .- 
half  full  of  long  manure  and  garden  mould,  packed 
down  hard,  and  made  very  wet.  The  holes  should 
then  be  filled  to  the  top  with  rich  mould,  into  v\hich 
should  be  put  about  a  dozen  seed  taken  from  the  best 
watermelon.  Cover  them  with  a  layer  of  well  rotted 
manure.  Over  all  put  a  thin  layer  of  pure  sand, 
which  should  be  kept  watered.  These  holes  or  hills 
should  be  ten  or  twelve  feet  asunder,  and  when  the 
plants  have  come  up  and  have  put  forth  four  or  five 
leaves,  they  should  be  seperated ;  that  is,  the  worst 
plants  should  be  taken  out,  leaving  but  three  or  four 
of  the  best  plants  in  A  hill.  The  sand  mentioned,  is 
put  over  the  seed  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  the  yellow 
bug,  which  may  be  removed  and  rich  earth  put  in  its 
place,  so  soon  as  the  bug  disappears.  If  the  season 
be  dry,  use  water  liberally. 

When  the  plant  has  put  forth  six  or  eight  leaves, 
the  centre  shoot  should  be  taken  off,  so  as  to  cause 
the  vine  to  spread  laterally.  The  lateral  shoots, 
however,  should  also  be  taken  off,  when  six  or 
eight  inches  long.  This  will  cause  the  vine  to  spread 
still  more.  A  very  good  plan  is,  to  put  some  earth 
on  a  leaf  joint  about  every  four  feet,  taking  care  not 
to  cover  up  the  leaf.  The  joint  covered,  if  well  wa- 
tered, will  take  root;  which  will  give  strength  to,  and 
cause  the  vine  to  spread  over  the  whole  ground.  No 
male  blossoms  should  on  any  account  be  taken  off; 
but  all  improperly  formed  melons  should  be  thrown 


56 


MELONS. 


away.  Let  the  vine  run  as  far  as  it  will,  but  if  any 
of  the  lateral  branches  shew  a  tendency  to  turn  up, 
they  should  be  extracted  ten  or  twelve  inches  from  the 
main  vine.  Be  particular  to  suffer  no  melon  to  form 
within  four  feet  from  the  root.  One  melon  only 
should  grow  on  a  side  branch,  and  three  or  four  ta 
one  plant.  But  when  the  melon  has  attained  near- 
ly its  full  size,  a  second  series  may  be  suffered  to 
grow. 

It  is  recommended  to  plant  pumpkin  seed  near  the 
melons  to  attract  the  bugs;  though,  of  course,  they 
should  be  removed  so  soon  as  the  bugs  are  gone. 
Melon  seed  should  never  be  planted  in  the  neighbor- 
hood of  gourds,  nor  indeed  of  pumpkins,  squashes, 
musk  melons,  nor  any  thing  of  the  kind,  if  it  is  in- 
tended that  they  shall  flower;  for  the  pollen  will 
mix,  and  if  hybrid  varieties  are  not  produced,  the 
melon  is  injured  by  the  flavor  of  the  gourd,  or  redu- 
ced in  size. 

One  thing  I  would  particularly  mention,  concern- 
ing the  preparation  of  land  intended  ior  melons.  If 
it  is  desirable  to  have  early  melons,  at  least  one 
month  earlier,  the  spot  of  ground  should  be  covered 
by  hay,  straw,  fodder  stacks,  manure,  or  something 
else,  which  will  entirely  prevent  the  freezing  of  the 
ground.  Now  it  requires  a  month  or  more  in  the 
Spring  for  the  frost  to  get  entirely  out  of  the  earth, 
and  if  this  plan  is  pursued,  your  ground  is  ready  as 
soon  as  the  frosts  are  over  in  the  Spring. 

By  pursuing  the  plan  laid  down  above,  watermelons 


CIDER.  57 

may  be  had  not  only  earlier,  but  of  the  finest  and  lar- 
gest kind.  A  little  more  labor  is  all  the  difference 
between  this  and  the  common  careless  mode,  but 
the  difference  in  the  number  and  size  and  flavor  of 
the  melons  will  be  gieatj  and  will  amply  compensate 
the  cultivator. 


ON    MAKING    CIDER. 

When  you  wish  to  make  your  cider  to  put  away 
for  Winter,  you  should  cull  your  apples  and  have 
them  all  sound  and  all  of  one  kind.  The  trough  that 
you  grind  your  apples  in  should  be  scrupulously 
clean,  and  the  cask  which  is  to  receive  your  cider 
should  be  well  scalded  and  then  rinsed  with  cold  wa- 
ter. Have  the  straw  clean  through  which  your  cider 
runs.  Strain  the  cider  through  straw,  and  then  through 
flannel.  Then  pour  it  into  your  hogshead  or  cask, 
which  should  be  put  in  the  cellar.  Put  into  each 
hogshead  about  three  pounds  of  lard  or  about  five 
pounds  of  fat  pork,  stop  the  bung,  and  clay  it  over 
closely.  Your  cider  manufactured  in  this  manner, 
will  keep  sweet  until  the  next  harvest.  Never  suffer 
any  water  to  be  put  in  your  cider,  as  it  will  render  it 
flat  and  stale. 

Inattentive  farmers  frequently  collect  their  apples 
when  wet,  and  throw  them  in  a  pile,  exposed  to  the 


58  CIDER. 

sun  and  wet  weather.  This  is  a  miserable  practice. 
The  whole  mass  becomes  sour,  and  if  delay  ensues 
in  pressing  the  pumice,  fermentation  takes  place,  a 
small  quantity  of  which  juice  will  spoil  a  large  quan- 
tity. 

The  apples  should  always  hang  on  the  trees  until 
they  are  fully  ripe,  and  instead  of  being  threshed  off, 
they  should  be  gathered  by  hand  when  the  weather 
is  dry.  They  should  in  no  case  be  bruised,  or  suffer- 
ed to  become  wet.  The}  should  be  assorted,  and 
placed  in  seperate  piles,  where  they  should  remain 
from  eight  to  ten  or  twenty  days,  to  sweat.  This  pro- 
cess improves  them,  and  the  length  of  time  they 
should  sweat,  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  inferior- 
ity of  the  apples;  those  of  a  hard  and  crude  nature 
requiring  much  longer  than  the  best  kinds.  The  ap- 
ples should  be  piled  where  the  air  will  have  free  ac- 
cess to  them,  and  should  any  rot,  they  should  be  care-' 
fully  picked  out  and  thrown  away,  as  they  give  a  bit- 
ter disagreeable  taste  to  the  cider. 

The  apples  should,  in  the  next  place,  be  ground, 
and  the  pumice  spread  over  the  trough  to  take  the  air, 
by  which  the  cider  will  acquire  a  fine  color  and  be 
much  improved  in  flavor.  It  is  asserted  by  some, 
that  the  longer  the  pumice  lies  thus  exposed  to  the 
air  the  better,  provided  fermentation  does  not  take 
place  before  the  operation  of  pressing  is  completed. 
"  The  following  experiment,"  says  a  sensible  author, 
^' will  prove  this.     Bruise  a  tart  apple  on  one  side, 


CIDER.  S9 

and  let  it  lie  until  brown  ;  then  taste  the  juice  of  each 
part,  and  it  will  be  found  that  the  juice  of  the  bruised 
part  is  sweet  and  rich:  so  if  sweet  and  tart  apples 
are  ground  together,  and  put  immediately  on  the 
press,  the  liquor  which  they  produce  will  have  the 
taste  of  both  kinds  of  fruit ;  but  if  permitted  to  lie 
until  the  pumice  become  brown,  the  cider  will  be 
greatly  improved." 

Some  farmers  are  opposed  to  pressing  cider  through 
straw,  because  they  say,  the  straw  when  heated  in 
the  stack  gives  the  cider  a  bad  taste.  I  have  never 
known  any  such  effect  produced,  when  the  straw 
was  sweet  and  clean,  and  that  it  should  always 
be. 

After  the  operation  of  pressing  is  over,  the  cider, 
as  before  observed,  should  be  put  into  clean,  sweet 
casks.  When  the  casks  are  full,  they  should  be  pla- 
ced in  the  shade,  and  after  fermentation  takes  place, 
they  should  be  filled  up  once  or  more,  so  as  to  dis- 
charge as  much  as  possible  of  the  foreign  matter  from 
the  bung.  So  soon  as  the  white  froth  makes  its  ap- 
pearance, the  bung  should  be  placed  in  loosely  to 
check  gradually  the  fermentation.  After  this,  in  the 
first  clear  cool  weather,  the  cider  should  be  racked 
off  into  other  casks. 

Some  farmers  are  opposed  to  the  use  of  fresh  meat 
in  fining  cider,  and  recommend  isinglass  jelly.  They 
steep  the  isinglass  in  white  wine,  dissolve  it  over  the 
fire,  and  boil  it  in  some  of  the  cider  which  is  to  be 


W  HAY. 

fined.  It  is  a  plan  with  others  to  dissolve  the  isin- 
glass over  the  fire,  and  steep  it  several  weeks  in 
white  wine,  by  which  it  becomes  a  jelly. 

Cider  should  be  watched  very  closely,  as  a  slight 
change  in  the  weather  may  injure  it.  Should  it  be- 
come tart,  it  is  recommended  to  boil  and  hull  half  a 
peck  of  wheat,  and  put  it  into  each  hogshead.  This 
is  recommended  in  preference  to  animal  substan- 
ces, though  I  must  confess,  that  I  never  saw  any 
evil  effects  from  putting  a  piece  of  pork  or  beef  into 
cider. 

During  the  heat  of  summer,  cider  is  a  very  cool- 
ing and  wholesome  beverage,  when  properly  ferment- 
ed and  free  from  deleterious  ingredients.  Cider 
which  has  been  kept  in  leaden  vessels,  should  always 
be  avoided;  for  when  drank,  it  produces  violent  co- 
lics and  obstipation.  It  should  not  even  be  suffered  to 
run  through  leaden  tubes,  as  from  the  union  of  the 
lead  with  the  acid  of  the  fruit,  sugar  of  lead^  a  dead- 
ly poison,  is  produced ;  destructive  to  life  if  taken  in 
any  quantities. 


O  N     T  H  E  * 

PRODUCTION  OF  NATURAL  HAY. 

I  have  singularly  called  this  natural  hay,  because 
the  terra  is  used  generally  to  denote  any  thing  out  of 
the  common  order  of  things.     The  hay  I  here  re- 


HAY.  61 

commend,  is  intended  as  a  substitute,  when  the  far- 
mer has  no  clover,  timothy,  or  other  kind  of  grass  of 
his  own  raising.  When  you  cut  your  wild  grass, 
you  should  be  sure  not  to  cure  it  too  much.  I  would 
recommend  you  to  take  it  the  next  day  after  it  is  cut, 
if  the  weather  is  favorable,  and  have  it  stacked ;  and 
while  stacking,  to  put  a  layer  of  hay  and  then  a 
sprinkle  of  salt,  and  so  on,  until  you  have  put  away 
the  quantity  you  desire.  If  the  weather  should  prove 
wet,  and  you  should  be  disappointed  in  curing  your 
hay,  and  you  should  not  have  enough  to  serve  your 
stock  through  the  winter,  I  would  recommend  anoth- 
er mode  of  preparing  and  providing  yourself  with 
another  kind  of  hay,  which  has  seldom  been  thought 
of;  it  is  equal  to  the  best  hay  if  properly  attended  to 
and  cured.  It  is  the  leaves  of  all  trees,  of  which 
cattle  are  fond,  in  a  green  state.  Take  the  boughs  of 
the  Lombardy  Poplar,  of  the  Maple,  and  of  most  of 
the  bushes  in  the  woods  and  branch,  while  they  are 
green;  carry  them  to  a  place  where  they  can  be  cu- 
red and  stacked  like  timothy  hay.  A  ton  of  this  kind 
of  hay  is  worth  a  ton  of  timothy,  as  food  for  stock. 
Cattle  are  known  to  leave  green  clover  to  eat  the 
leaves  of  the  Mulberry,  which  can  be  easily  cur- 
ed, and  on  which  cattle  will  thrive.  The  experi- 
ment has  been  tried,  and  is,  thereforCj  no  matter  of 
speculation. 

You  should  not  take  too  many  branches  off  of  one 

tree,  lest  the  tree  should  be  injured.      The  branches 
Q 


62  HAY. 

should  not  be  cut  until  the  leaves  have  acquired  their 
full  size,  for  I  have  seen  the  stock  that  were  in  a  clo- 
ver field,  and  whenever  a  tree  was  felled  the  cattle 
would  leave  the  clover,  go  to  the  tree,  and  eat  the 
leaves  as  high  as  they  could  reach.  This  is  a  proof 
that  the  leaves  of  some  trees,  particularly  the  mulber- 
ry and  maple,  are  good  food  for  cattle;  and  if  they 
are  so  when  green,  why  not  so  when  cured  like  clo- 
ver or  timothy  ? 

Suppose  an  individual  were  to  remove  to  a  newly 
settled  country,  and  set  himself  down  in  the  midst  of 
the  wilderness.  He  commences  clearing  the  land, 
and  while  he  is  falling  his  timber,  if  it  be  in  the  fall, 
he  may  collect  the  limbs  and  leaves,  to  secure  for  his 
horses  hay  enough  to  serve  them  for  one  year ;  which 
will  be  the  best  of  hay,  if  properly  cured  and  stack- 
ed away.  This  should  be  done  in  the  same  manner 
in  which  clover  or  timothy  is  cured,  and  stacked. 
This  would  be  a  blessing  to  thousands  of  men  who  go 
to  those  unsettled  countries,  and  are  not  aware  that 
the  leaves  of  the  woods  will  make  hay.  A  great 
many  leaves  might  be  collected  in  a  short  time,  by 
cutting  off  the  twigs  and  ends  of  the  branches,  and 
even  one  tree  would  make  considerable  provender. 
Nature  is  kind  to  those  gentlemen  who  sit  themselves 
down  in  the  wild  woods,  for  they  are  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  horse  food  from  the  trees,  without  much 
labor. 


TOBACCO. 


63 


ON    TOBACCO. 

The  preparation  of  the  ground  for  tobacco  seed  is 
very  simple.  If  the  cultivator  has  ever  prepared 
ground  for  cabbage  seed,  he  has  an  idea  at  once  how 
it  should  be  done.  If  the  ground  is  new,- brush  should 
be  burnt  upon  it  for  the  purpose  of  cleaning  it.  To 
avoid  burning,  some  recommend  weeding  the  bed  ev- 
ery year,  after  the  crop  comes  oflF. 

PLANTING. 

The  proper  time  for  planting,  is  from  the  last  week 
in  May  to  the  middle  of  July.  In  the  first  place, 
however,  the  seed  should  be  sown.  As  it  is  uncer- 
tain as  to  the  number  of  seed  which  will  vegetate,  a 
great  many  more  should  be  sown  than  will  be  requir- 
ed; say  about  half  a  pint  to  a  piece  of  land  12  feet 
square.  When  they  come  up,  it  is  a  custom  to  rake 
out  the  superabundance,  with  a  rake  made  of  sharp 
iron  points  or  nails,  placed  about  one-half  or  three- 
quarters  of  an  inch  apart.  This  rake  is  carried 
through  the  plants  with  an  irregular  motion,  so  as  not 
to  leave  them  standing  in  rows.  Some  do  this  by 
hand,  as  cabbage  plants  are  thinned.  The  proper 
time  for  this  operation  is  about  the  beginning  or 
middlejof  May,  a  little  before  the  time  for  plantingj 
and  when  the  plants  are  of  the  size  of  a  fip  or  half- 
dime. 


64 


TOBACCO. 


From  the  latter  part  of  May  to  the  middle  of  July, 
as  observed  above,  is  the  proper  period  for  planting. 
The  plants  should  be  about  three  inches  broad ;  strong 
and  healthy.  They  should  be  set  out  in  hills,  some- 
thing in  the  manner  of  transplanting  cabbages.  Like 
these  the  tobacco  plants  should  be  worked,  but  much 
oftener  with  the  hoe  or  plough. 

TOPPING. 

This  operation  takes  place  in  common  about  the 
middle  of  August,  and  some  of  the  crop  later.  The 
necessity  for  this  is  known,  or  the  ripeness  of  the  to- 
bacco is  pointed  out  by  its  buttoning  and  blossoming. 
All  cultivation  now  ceases,  and  the  culturist  proceeds 
to  topping  or  breaking  off  the  blossoms  to  a  leaf  that 
will  ripen  as  soon  as  the  bottom  leaves.  The  top-* 
ping  and  priming  should,  according  to  my  experience, 
be  done  high ;  for  then  more  leaves  will  be  turned 
out,  the  number  of  which  should  not  be  less  than  six- 
teen. The  leaves  will  of  course  be  smaller,  but  at 
the  same  time  they  will  be  richer  and  of  a  finer  tex- 
ture. There  is  another  advantage  in  high  topping; 
the  leaves  will  be  higher  from  the  ground,  and  of 
course  more  clean,  more  free  from  dirt.  The  leaves, 
though  smaller,  will  be  greater  in  number ;  being  long- 
er growing,  they  will  be  richer,  and  the  smaller  size 
of  the  leaves  will  give  them  greater  advantages  froo^ 
the  light  and  air. 


TOBACCO. 


CUTTING. 


65 


Great  loss  ensues  to  the  cultivator  from  performing 
this  operation  before  the  tobacco  is  perfectly  ripe. 
Twenty-five  per  cent,  and  even  more,  is  often  tobacco 
lessened  in  value  by  being  cut  only  a  few  days  before 
the  proper  time.  In  cutting  too  soon,  the  rich  flavor 
is  destroyed,  the  weight  is  diminished,  and  the  elasti- 
city of  the  leaf  lessened. 

The  flavor  of  tobacco  is  every  thing ;  and)  there- 
fore, it  should  not  be  cut  until  it  is  fully  ripe.  Some 
cultivators  say  that  the  whole  crop  should  be  cut  at 
once,  but  I  cannot  agree  to  this,  for  I  have  seen  part 
of  a  field  perfectly  ripe,  another  part  half  ripe,  and 
a  third  portion  perfectly  green.  Now  to  cut  it  all 
at  once  would  infallibly  ruin  a  great  portion  of 
the  crop.     It  should  therefore  be  cut  as  it  ripens. 

The  operation  of  cutting  is  done  with  an  instru- 
ment resembling  a  butcher's  cleaver.  It  should  lie 
for  a  while  on  the  field  after  it  is  cut,  until  the  leaves 
wither,  and  there  is  no  danger  of  breaking  from  be- 
ing handled. 

^  HOUSING    AND    CURING. 

From  the  field  it  should  be  carted  to  the  house  for 
curing.  Here  a  peg  six  inches  long  is  driven  into  the 
butt,  by  which  it  is  hung  on  sticks.  Sometimes  it  is 
split,  that  is,  the  stalk  is  split  down  almost  to  the  butt, 
before  it  is  brought  in.  This  split  is  placed  across 
6* 


Sfe  TOBACCO. 

the  sticks,  which  are  placed  on  standards  about  fire 
or  six  inches  apart,  and  the  plants  placed  about  the 
same  distance  asunder.  Tobacco  may  be  cured  eith- 
er by  fire  or  by  air,  and  the  proper  test  of  its  being 
cured,  is  the  perfect  dryness  of  the  stem  of  the  leaf. 
The  tobacco  house  should  be  close  and  tight,  with 
numerous  doors  and  windows.  In  houses  not  prop- 
erly ventilated,  the  smoke  gives  a  very  disagreeable 
bitter  taste  to  the  leaves,  and  a  nauseous  flavor,  which 
the  tobacco  never  loses. 

There  are  several  ways  of  curing  tobacco  by  fire, 
such  as  kiln-drying  it  as  plank  is  dried.  Others  cut 
a  ditch  in  the  floor  and  arch  it  with  bricks.  In  one 
end  of  this  the  fire  is  made,  the  heat  from  which  es- 
capes up  into  the  room,  while  the  smoke  is  conveyed 
along  the  arch  into  the  open  air.  In  general  the  air  is 
sufficient  to  cure  tobacco ;  yet  in  wet  weather  fire  is 
necessary.  The  top  leaves  of  tobacco  are  always 
the  richest  and  the  best. 

STRIPPINa. 

Tobacco  can  never  be  stripped  except  in  damp  or 
moist  weather,  for  it  is  only  then  that  the  leaves  can 
be  handled  without  crumbling  under  the  pressure  of 
the  fingers.  After  being  stripped,  it  is  tied  up  in  bun- 
dles and  laid  in  a  pile,  when  care  should  be  taken 
that  it  does  not  ferment.  After  this,  it  is  straddled 
again,  and  in  moist  weather  taken  down  for  packing. 
The  hogsheads  in  which  it  is  to  b^  packed,  should 


I'OBACCO.  W 

never  be  made  of  green  wood,  or  the  tobacco  will  in- 
fallibly be  injured.  It  is  said  that  the  acid  of  the 
wood  is  more  injurious  than  the  dampness.  The 
loss  is  sometimes  very  considerable  to  the  planter 
from  ignorantly  using  green  or  damp  hogsheads. 

PACKING. 

The  process  of  packing  is  very  simple,  and  scarce- 
ly needs  a  description.  I  shall,  however,  give  it  for 
the  benefit  of  those  who  are  not  skilled  in  the  matter. 
In  Virginia,  it  is  customary  to  place,  in  packing,  the 
leaves  parallel  to  each  other,  and  never  to  have  more 
than  five  or  six  leaves  to  the  bundle.  In  this  way 
they  lie  regularly  in  the  hogshead,  and  are  easily  ta- 
ken out  without  tangling  and  tearing.  In  the  Western 
States,  it  is  a  bad  custom  to  pack  the  tobacco  in  the 
hogsheads  in  a  careless  and  irregular  manner,  to  the 
great  injury  of  good  tobacco.  One-half  of  the  va- 
lue and  quality  of  tobacco  depends  upon  the  good 
management  of  it,  or  in  other  words  upon  the  cutting, 
curing,  packing,  &c. 

Tobacco  is  valued  for  quantity  or  quality,  and  they 
seldom  go  together.  If  the  soil,  like  that  of  the 
Western  States,  is  strong  and  rich,  the  tobacco  will 
grow  luxuriantly,  the  quantity  will  be  great,  and  the 
quality  inferior.  But  if  the  soil  be  light  and  sandy, 
the  quantity  will  be  small  and  the  quality  superior. 
Tobacco  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  troublesome  of 
all  crops.    Unlike  other  crops,  the  new  seed  are  put 


68  TOBACCO. 

in  the  ground  before  the  old  crop  is  disposed  of. 
There  is  no  vegetable  which  has  so  many  enemies. 
Like  the  silk  worm,  every  insect  appears  to  be  its  en- 
emy, and  yet  when  tobacco  is  manufactured,  no  ani- 
mal will  use  it  besides  man,  with  the  single  exception 
of  the  monkey. 

r  shall  enumerate  some  of  the  enemies  of  the  tobac- 
co plant.  The  most  voracious  of  all  is  the  horn 
worm.  Then  come  the  bud  worm^  the  ground  worm^ 
the  wth  worm.  There  is  also  a  fly  which  devours  the 
plants  while  in  the  bed,  and  which  follows  them  when 
they  are  carried  to  the  field. 

The  most  common  method  of  ridding  the  plants  of 
these  enemies,  is  to  pick  them  off  by  hand ;  but  I  have 
seen  chickens,  ducks,  turkies,  &c.,  turned  into  the 
field,  where  they  soon  wake  war  with  the  enemy. 

It  is  a  historical  fact,  that  in  the  year  1622,  only 
20,000  pounds  of  tobacco  were  raised  in  Virginia. 
In  the  beginning  of  the  Revolution  100,000,000  of 
pounds  for  four  years  were  raised,  from  1772  to  1775. 
In  1789,  the  quantity  raised  was  89,000,000  of  lbs. 
The  quantity  increased  until  1815,  until  which  time 
the  production  of  tobacco  averaged  82,000  hogs- 
heads, or  upwards  of  99,000,000  pounds  annually. 
In  the  year  1834,  there  were  exported  from  the  Unit- 
ed States  87,979  hogsheads  of  tobacco  to  different 
ports  in  Europe,  and  the  exports  of  tobacco  in  the 
year  1836  amounted  to  something  more  than  12,000,- 
000  of  dollars. 


PLOUGHING.  69 

From  this  we  see  that  the  tobacco  trade  is  second 
in  greatness  and  value,  the  exportation  of  cotton  be- 
ing greatest;  it  being  no  less  in  1836,  than  80,000,- 
000  of  dollars.  We  hear  persons  speaking  against 
the  use  of  tobacco,  but  they  are  not  aware  of  the  vast 
income  from  this  trade,  how  much  it  builds  up  the  in- 
terests of  the  country,  and  to  how  many  thousands  it 
gives  employment.  Strike  from  our  exports  the  ar- 
ticle of  tobacco,  and  what  a  chasm  would  there  be 
left?  How  many  would  be  thrown  out  of  employ- 
ment ?     How  many  would  be  destitute  of  bread  } 


^  ON    PLOUGHING. 

You  should  never  plough  your  land  at  any  season 
of  the  year  unless  you  are  compelled  by  having  to 
seed  some  kind  of  grain  or  vegetable ;  for  the  mo- 
ment the  soil  is  broken,  you  are  preparing  your  land 
for  exposure  to  the  sun's  rays,  and  also  to  the  frosts 
of  winter.  I  warn  you  against  any  larger  plough 
than  nine  inches,  for  any  kind  of  grassy  land  may  be 
broken  up  with  a  plough  of  that  size,  as  deep  as  any 
land  should  be  broken  in  this  part  of  the  country. 
The  consequence  is,  if  it  is  ploughed,  any  deeper  than 
six  inches,  the  better  part  of  the  soil  is  turned  over 
ajnd  sunk,  w^iile  the  yellow  dirt  is  thrown  up.  When 
this  is  the  case,  it  will  generally  require  two  years 


70  PLOUGHING. 

for  the  soil  to  rise  to  the  top  of  the  earth  again.  The 
less  you  take  of  the  surface  at  a  time,  the  easier  it  is 
broken  in  pieces,  and  the  sooner  it  is  pulverized. 

When  you  commence  ploughing,  you  should  re- 
member to  have  your  double  singletree  of  a  length 
to  correspond  with  the  plough,  or  the  plough  will  not 
run  well.  Your  double  singletree  should  be  three 
times  the  length  that  your  plough  cuts ;  that'  is,  if 
your  plough  cuts  nine  inches,  your  singletree  should 
be  twenty-seven  inches  in  length  from  each  staple  at 
the  end.  If  your  plough  cuts  eight  inches,  your 
singletree  would  be  twenty-four  inches. 

By  observing  the  above  directions,  your  plough 
will  run  flat  and  turn  the  furrow  well  over.  The 
horse  in  the  furrow  governs  the  plough,  therefore  you 
should  never  move  the  clevis  at  the  end  of  the  beam. 
Observe  this,  and  your  plough  will  run  steady  with- 
out any  trouble  to  the  ploughman,  and  your  plough 
will  rise  up  at  the  end  when  your  horses  turn  round, 
and  will  take  the  proper  distance.  If  there  are  no 
stones  or  stumps,  the  plough  will  run  to  the  end  of 
the  row  without  the  ploughman  having  any  necessity 
to  touch  her. 

The  proper  test  whether  a  plough  runs  well  or  not, 
is  to  throw  her  on  her  side ;  and  if  all  is  right,  she 
will  rise  and  take  the  proper  distance  herself.  By 
this  I  have  always  judged,  and  it  is  a  perfect  test. 

To  recapitulate.  The  New  York  farmers,  who 
are  perhaps  as  good  as  any  in  the  United  States,  have, 


SFRUIT  TREES.  71 

I  am  happy  to  see,  adopted  the  plan  of  shallow 
ploughing;  believing  it  to  be  the  proper  mode  pointed 
out  by  nature.  Reason  and  experience  evidently  go 
in  favor  of  it,  and  that  which  is  proven  by  experience 
should  be  immediately  adopted.  That  it  will  be  uni- 
versally adopted,  there  is  not  the  shadow  of  a  doubt. 


ON  THE  PRODUCTION  OF  FRUIT  TREES. 

I  have  been  astonished,  for  a  number  of  years,  at 
hearing  farmers  speaking  of  raising  trees  of  all  kinds 
by  the  process  of  grafting  scions  on  other  stalks. 
This  is  not  necessary  to  obtain  the  kind  of  fruit  de- 
sired. I  have  come  to  the  firm  conclusion  that  graft- 
ing is  not  the  best  mode  of  obtaining  the  kind  of  fruit 
you  want,  and  that  it  is  not  the  soonest.  The  manner 
I  recommend,  is  to  take  those  sprouts  which  grow  out 
of  the  trunk  of  the  tree,  at  that  point  where  the  first 
limbs  rise,  and  are  conjoined.  These  should  be  cut 
off  transversely  with  a  smooth  surface,  and  the  ends 
covered  with  cement,  made  of  beeswax  and  resin. 
Have  your  ground  ploughed  and  in  good  order,  and 
then  lay  off  the  rows  with  your  plough,  about  four 
feet  apart.  Plough  the  furrows  about  four  or  five 
inches  deep,  and  take  of  the  best  rotted  stable  ma- 
nure, and  put  about  two  inches  in  each  row.  Then 
take  those  sprouts,  and  lay  them  down  lengthways 


12  FRUIT   TREES. 

in  the  furrow;  one  at  the  end  of  another.  In  the 
next  place,  fill  the  trenches  where  you  have  laid  your 
cuttings,  with  rich  mould  or  loam ;  and  you  will  have 
a  sprout  for  every  bud  on  the  cuttings.  Roots  will 
start  out  from  around  the  buds,  and  when  the  trees 
are  large  enough  to  plant  out,  you  should  lay  the  cut- 
tings bare,  and  saw  or  cut  between  the  buds.  Every 
tree  will  thus  have  its  roots,  and  will  be  ready  to 
be  transplanted  or  sent  to  market.  By  this  mode 
you  may  produce  them  more  rapidly  than  any  other 
way,  and  with  the  perfect  assurance  that  they  wWl 
be  of  the  genuine  kind  desired.  The  seed  of 
an  apple  will  perhaps  bring  forth  trees  of  all 
kinds,  except  the  kind  you  want ;  but  the  cutting 
can  never  bring  forth  any  but  the  genuine  original 
kind. 

In  this  w^ay  the  largest  and  thriftiest  fruit  trees  may 
be  obtained.  Every  other  year,  those  young  fruit 
trees  should  be  manured,  except  the  plum  and  the 
peach ;  which  require  a  very  light  soil.  The  first, 
if  not  the  second  winter,  the  roots  of  the  young  sci- 
ons should  be  covered  with  straw  to  prevent  them 
from  freezing;  and  early  in  the  spring,  this  straw 
should  be  carefully  raked  away  and  carried  to  the  sta- 
ble-yard. 


WOODLANDS.  73 

ON     WOODLANDS. 

You  should  never  cut  down  your  timber  in  the 
spring,  when  the  sap  is  up  in  the  tree,  unless  the  bark 
is  the  grand  object;  as  you  will  injure  your  land,  and 
the  timber  will  not  last  half  so  long.  You  should 
clear  your  woods  of  the  undergrowth,  or  bushes  and 
briars;  and  suffer  them  not  to  encumber  the  ground. 
By  doing  so,  the  trees  will  grow  faster  and  larger. 
Then  seed  your  woods  down  in  clover  and  herd  grass, 
for  the  purpose  of  having  pasture  for  your  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  and  your  sows  and  pigs,  while  the  pigs 
are  young. 

If  you  should  have  any  spare  land,  which  you  do 
not  intend  to  cultivate,  and  improve  by  my  mode  of 
cultivation;  and  you  should  wish  to  introduce  the 
pine,  you  must  procure  some  of  the  seed,  put  them  in 
a  barrel  full  of  water,  and  let  them  go  through  the  fer- 
mentative process.  Then  sow  them  on  the  land  that 
you  have  set  apart,  and  with  your  large  spike  har- 
row, go  over  the  ground,  so  as  to  cover  them.  If 
well  done,  they  will  soon  come  up.  Beware  of  sow- 
ing them  too  thick,  as  it  will  give  you  the  trouble  of 
cutting  up  the  superfluous  scions.  In  ten  years  you 
will  have  a  beautiful  woods. 

It  appears  that  all  living  objects  of  the  creation  are 
subject  to  disease.  Trees  are  no  exception,  for  they 
too  have  their  diseases  in  great  variety ;  such  as  the 


74  WOODLANDS. 

canker,  moss,  &c.  The  health  of  trees,  whether  for- 
est or  fruit  trees,  may  be  much  promoted  by  cutting 
away  all  diseased  and  dead  parts.  Every  rotten,  hol- 
low, or  decaying  limb,  should  be  immediately  re- 
moved, as  soon  as  observed.  And  they  should  not 
be  removed  only,  but  they  should  be  cut  off  until  the 
axe  comes  to  the  sound  woad,  the  surface  of  which 
should  be  left  perfectly  smooth.  Mr.  Forsyth,  of 
London,  gives  the  following  composition,  for  putting 
on  the  stumps  of  limbs  which  have  been  amputated. 
To  twenty-five  gallons  of  human  urine,  and  a  peck  of 
lime,  mix  as  much  cow  dung  as  will  bring  it  to  the 
consistence  of  paint.  This  substance  should  be  laid 
on  with  a  brush,  about  the  latter  part  of  March,  until 
a  sufficient  coat  is  on  the  stump  to  protect  it  from  the 
weather.  This  is  said  to  be  effectual,  though  I  have 
never  had  occasion  to  use  it. 

By  properly  trimming  and  cutting  away  the  dis- 
eased parts,  trees  may  be  made  to  last  much  longer ; 
nay,  their  very  existence  is  often  renewed.  An  acre 
of  woodland,  properly  attended  to,  is  worth  two 
acres  suffered  to  run  to  waste,  to  languish  and  die. 
Disease  in  trees,  as  well  as  in  the  human,  destroys 
them,  if  not  arrested  by  amputation  or  proper  reme- 
dies. 


LIME*  75 


ON   LIME   AS    MANURE. 

Though  lime  has  been  used  for  ages  as  a  manure, 
there  are  thousands  who  shut  their  eyes  to  the  testi- 
mony of  the  most  enlightened  nations,  and  in  their 
pretended  contempt  for  "  book-farming,^^  affect  to 
know  more  about  the  matter  than  those  who  are  ex- 
perienced and  know  from  practice.  I  do  not  believe 
every  idle  tale  concerning  the  efficacy  of  lime,  nor  do 
I  believe  that  it  acts  on  the  soil  in  every  respect  as 
others  believe ;  yet  there  cannot  be  the  shadow  of  a 
doubt  that  its  proper  application  ameliorates  the  soil, 
as  was  taught  by  the  ancient  Roman  writers  of  cele- 
brity. Like  marl,  lime  binds  the  sandy  and  renders 
more  porous  the  clayey  soil,  attracting  moisture  at  the 
same  time  from  the  atmosphere.  My  object,  in  wri- 
ting upon  the  subject,  is  not  so  much  to  extol  its 
merits  as  a  manure^  as  to  describe  its  merits  in  a  true 
light. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  lime  used  as  a  manure  for 
land.  The  first  is  procured  by  burning  ojster  shells, 
and  the  second  by  burning  limestone  in  a  kiln.  The 
first  is  by  far  the  best,  inasmuch  as  it  is  much  finer, 
purer,  and  acts  more  rapidly  on  the  soil  than  the  Oth- 
er. 

The  oyster  shell  lime  is  adapted  to  every  soiljpro-* 
vided  the  soil  is  not  too  low  and  wet.  Lime  acts,  as  be- 
fore observed,  by  absorbing  moisture  from  the  atmos- 


76  LIME. 

phere,  and  it  isj  therefore,  reasonable  to  suppose  that 
a  wet  soil  would  only  render  the  lime  a  mass  of  mortjar. 
But  as  was  observed  of  marl,  it  benefits  clayey  land 
by  opening  the  pores  of  the  soil,  making  it  friable  and 
giving  free  passage  to  water  and  the  roots  of  vegeta- 
bles. Now  there  is  sometimes  too  great  a  quantity 
of  acid  in  the  soil,  and  the  lime  serves  a  good  part  by 
neutralizing  this  acid,  and  thereby  benefitting  the 
plants  growing  therein. 

Lime  is  beneficial  also  to  sandy  and  gravelly  soils 
by  binding  their  particles  together,  by  which  they  re- 
tain whatever  falls  upon  them.  The  heat  of  the  sun 
vaporizes  and  carries  off  from  sandy  soils,  the  best 
anid  most  nutritious  portions  of  vegetable  matters  and 
gasses.  When  the  soil  is  limed,  great  care  should  be 
taken  that  it  be  covered  from  the  sun,  so  as  to  retain 
these  juices  and  gasses. 

Care  must  be  taken  how  and  when  lime  is  applied. 
^It  is  well  known  that  quick  lime  is  caustic,  and  that 
lime  water  destroys  a  plant  when  thrown  upon  it. 
But  when  lime  is  spread  upon  land,  it  unites  itself 
chemically  with  vegetables,  becomes  a  compost,  dis- 
solves in  Water,  and  in  this  way  becomes  nutritious  to 
vegetation. 

Land  should  properly  be  limed  in  the  summer,  say 
in  June  or  July,  when  the  soil  is  in  fallow,  by  which 
it  will  be  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  soil  be- 
fore the  sowing  of  the  crop.  This  should  be  the 
case,  if  it  is  intended  that  turnips  should  be  sown. 


LIME.  *7t 

If  the  lime  is  to  be  spread  upon  an  old  field,  some 
recommend  that  it  should  be  applied  to  the  sward 
before  the  plough  enters,  or  the  surface  is  bro- 
ken. 

Other  writers  on  lime  say,  that  it  should  be  plough- 
ed in  a  few  days  before  seeding.  But  if  the  ground 
be  new,  they  say  it  should  be  spread  upon  the  sur- 
face, ploughed  under  in  autumn,  and  ploughed  to  the 
surface  again  in  the  ensuing  spring.  I  must  confess 
that  this  strikes  me  as  being  a  very  good  plan.  In 
planting  corn,  I  have  not  a  doubt  but  that  this  is 
the  very  best  plan  that  could  be  pursued. 

Chemists  have  demonstrated  the  positive  fact,  that 
lime  forms  a  part  of  the  composition  of  nearly  all  veg- 
etables, and  hence  we  find  that  it  has  been  known 
from  time  immemorial. 

There  is  a  great  diversity  of  opinion  with  respect 
to  the  quantity  of  lime  necessary  to  be  spread  upon 
a  given  number  of  acres.  There  appears  to  be  no 
certain  quantity  used  in  England,  varying  from  two 
to  six  hundred  bushels.  My  opinion  is,  that  where 
the  soil  is  sandy,  the  quantity  of  lime  should  be  in  pro- 
portion to  the  quantity  of  vegetable  matter  contained 
therein.  In  France,  they  use  small  quantities,  declar- 
ihg  that  from  twenty-five  to  thirty  bushels  are  sufficient 
at  one  time.  In  America,  also,  the  quantity  varies 
from  sixty  to  three  hundred  bushels  per  acre.  Six  hun- 
dred bushels  have  been  applied  to  strong  clayey  soils^ 

but  this  quantity  would  be  too  much  for  sandy  lands. 

7* 


18  LIMK. 

Whether  or  not  the  benefits  derived  will  balance 
the  expense  of  such  heavy  applications,  I  am  not  pre- 
pared to  say ;  but  be  this  as  it  may,  the  shell  lime  is 
far  preferable,  and  should  in  all  cases  be  used,  though 
not  in  any  such  quantities  as  here  spoken  of.  Indeed 
if  my  system  be  correct,  no  lime  is  needed,  and  no 
other  artificial  manure,  unless  it  be  made  into  a  com- 
post, which  should  be  made  as  follows : 

To  make  a  compost  pile,  take  all  the  long  manure 
you  have,  and  all  the  vegetable  matter  that  can  be 
gathered  on  the  farm,  such  as  leaves,  hay,  grass  from 
the  hedges,  and  what  else  that  may  be  found,  and 
place  them  in  layers  in  the  field,  sprinkling  on  each 
layer  a  good  coat  of  lime.  Let  each  lawyer  of  dung 
and  vegetable  matter  be  five  or  six  inches  thick,  and 
on  each  alternately  or  successively  spread  a  good 
coat  of  lime.  When  it  has  risen  into  a  pile,  and  con- 
tains all  the  matter  you  possess,  cover  it  over  with 
dirt  five  or  six  inches  thick,  so  that  the  gasses  which 
do  escape,  may  be  caught  and  retained  in  the  earth 
on  the  top,  \vhich  they  will  serve  to  enrich.  Heat 
will  soon  be  generated,  fermentation  will  ensue,  and 
the  vegetable  matter  be  decomposed,  or  reduced 
to  original  principles ;  that  state  in  w^hich  the  dead 
plant  becomes  food  for  the  living  one.  Thus  life 
springs  out  of  death  and  decay,  for  vegetable  matter 
must  be  not  only  dead,  but  rotten,  before  the  living 
plant  can  derive  nourishment  from  it.  The  very 
roots  of  the  living,  riot  in  the  dead  matter  of  the  dead 


MAltL.  7d 

plant,  which  but  last   year  sprung  from  the   ruins 
of  another.     Nature  continually  deals  in  wonders. 

Many  farmers  notoriously  throw  away  many  re- 
sources, which  they  might  turn  to  great  advantage. 
Does  a  horse  die  on  the  farm,  straightway  his  hide  is 
taken  off  and  sold,  and  the  more  valuable  part  drag- 
ged out  to  feed  the  "  bleaking  buzzards  of  the  night," 
as  though  the  carcass  were  good  for  nothing.  The 
same  is  performed  when  an  ox,  cow,  sheep,  or  any 
other  animal  dies,  or  gets  killed  on  the  farm.  And 
thus  they  labor,  I  mean  all  such  injudicious  farmers, 
to  throw  away  the  very  best  sources  of  manure  on 
their  farms.  All  dead  animals,  even  to  dogs,  cats, 
and  rats,  should  be  turned  to  account,  by  making  a 
compost  of  them  with  lime.  Animal  matter  makes 
the  best  of  manure,  when  decomposed  or  reduced  to 
original  principles.  How  many  loads  of  the  best  ma- 
nure are  thus  lost  every  year  by  injudicious  manage- 
ment !  Heaven  has  placed  within  our  reach  all  that 
we  need,  if  we  will  not  blindly  overlook  our  advanta- 
ges, and  despise  the  blessings  which  an  all-wise  God 
bestows  upon  us. 


ON    MARL 


Though  my  system  of  agriculture  is  based  on  the 
fact,  that  nature  will  manure  the  land  if  kept  covered 


80  MARL. 

from  the  sun;  yet  I  do  not  condemn  the  use  of  Marl 
and  other  manures,  when  they  can  be  obtained  easily 
and  without  too  much  expense.  But  if  marl  is  to  be 
hauled  from  a  distance  of  5  or  10  miles,  it  is  better  to 
let  it  remain;  for  it  costs  more  than  it  comes  to.  I 
advocate  marl  not  as  a  manure,  but  as  an  ingredient 
to  improve  the  texture  of  the  soil ;  for  there  must  be 
a  soil,  or  my  system  cannot  be  brought  into  operation. 
Upon  naked  sand  I  can  do  nothing,  and  therefore  I 
recommend  the  use  of  marl,  as  it  has  a  tendency  to 
bind  together  a  sandy  soil  and  to  render  a  clayey  one 
more  porous,  by  which  the  rains  can  be  received  and 
retained.  Clay  marl  for  sandy  land,  and  stone  marl 
for  a  clayey  soil  should  be  used.  With  this  neces- 
sary introduction,  I  shall  proceed  to  speak  of  the 
subject  proposed  ;  the  kinds  and  nature  of  marls. 

The  component  parts  of  marl  are  clay,  sand  and 
calcareous  matter.  Sometimes  two  of  them  are  united, 
but  chalk  or  lime  in  some  proportion  is  always  found. 
Glay  marls  are  found  of  various  colors :  blue,  brown, 
reddish,  yellowish  white  and  yellowish  grey.  The 
blue  clay  marl  is  never  found  in  conjunction  with  sand, 
and  the  shell  marl  is  not  often  found  combined  with 
clay.  There  is  in  stone  marl  sometimes  a  super- 
abundance of  clay  and  sometimes  of  sand,  though  it  is 
more  frequently  sand.  As  observed  before,  the  sand 
marls,  be  it  shell  or  shistus,  should  be  put  upon  clayey 
soils  and  clay  marls  on  a  sandy  soil,  because  in  the 
first  they  render  the  soil  more  porous,  and  in  the 


MARL.  81 

second  less  so.  The  defect  in  each  is  thus  remedied. 
Marl  has  somewhat  the  appearance  of  fine  clay, 
but  of  a  color  considerably  lighter,  and  like  clays, 
seems  to  be  of  a  greasy  consistence  ;  yet  it  is  not  te- 
nacious like  clay,  but  crumbles  to  pieces  between  the 
fingers.  It  has  very  little  or  no  smell,  and  tastes  very 
like  chalk.  It  is  found  in  many  parts  of  our  widely 
extended  country ;  sometimes  in  wet  flat  lands,  and 
at  other  times  under  sand  banks,  by  the  margin  of 
rivers. 

It  is  difficult  to  keep  vegetable  matter  in  a  sandy 
soil,  as  it  gives  it  up  readily,  not  only  to  plants,  but 
is  vaporized  and  carried  off  by  the  heat  of  the  sun's 
rays.  Herice  it  is  called  a  hungry  soil,  and  hence, 
too,  I  recommend  it  to  be  covered  by  clover  or  grass 
to  protect  it  from  the  volatilizing  power  of  the  sun. 
All  sandy  soils  need  clay  and  a  portion  of  calcareous 
matter  to  improve  their  texture  and  increase  their  fer- 
tility. Marl  at  once  answers  this  purpose,  as  it  con- 
tains both  clay  and  lime.  The  quantity  put  on  the 
soil  should  be  in  proportion  to  the  deficiency  of  these 
substances  in  the  soil.  It  is  said  that  the  effect  of  marl 
on  the  sandy  soil  will  be  seen  for  twenty  or  thirty 
years.  This  arises  from,  and  proves  the  fact,  that  the 
earths  do  not  constitute  the  food  of  plants,  but  that 
the  soil  is  only  the  stomach  which  digests,  or  assimi- 
lates the  animal  and  vegetable  matter  which  nourishes 
and  enters  into  the  composition  of  plants.  The  very 
best  soil  is  that  in  which  the  three  earths,  sand,  clay, 


82  MARL. 

and  lime  are  blended  in  certain  proportions.  Wheat 
cannot  grow  in  a  soil  destitute  of,  or  deficient  in,  cal- 
careous matter,  which  is  generally  more  or  less  the 
case  wnth  sandy  land.  Gypsum,  or  Plaster  of  Paris, 
is  sometimes  used.  It  is  a  sulphate  of  lime,  or  sulphu- 
ric acid  (oil  of  vitriol)  combined  with  lime.  The 
lime  binds  the  sand,  and  the  sulphuric  acid  is  a  stimu- 
lus, and  serves  to  attract  moisture  from  the  atmos- 
phere, which,  when  covered,  serves  to  enrich  the 
soil. 

Clay  lands  are  denominated  cold,  because  they  are 
of  a  compact,  solid  texture,  resisting  more  than  sand 
the  action  of  the  sun's  rays.  The  roots  of  plants 
cannot  penetrate  such  a  soil  freely,  and  like  all  so- 
lid bodies  its  temperature  is  low,  being  too  cold  to 
carry  on  the  process  necessary  to  the  health  and  rla*- 
pid  growth  of  plants.  It  is  here  that  the  stone  or 
sand  marl  is  beneficial,  in  rendering  the  soil  more  po- 
rous, by  which  heat  and  moisture  are  admitted  to  as-^ 
sist  in  digesting  the  food  necessary  to  the  growth  of 
the  plant. 

It  is  a  very  easy  matter  to  distinguish  marl  from 
mere  clay,  and  also  to  discover  whether  it  is  marl  01^ 
not.  Put  a  piece  or  a  portion  pulverized  into  one  of 
the  acids,  even  vinegar,  if  strong,  and  if  effervescence 
takes  place,  it  is  an  evidence  sufiicient  that  it  is  marl^ 
for  clay  will  not  effervesce  in  any  of  the  acids.  The 
effervescence  is  occasioned  by  the  action  of  the  acid 
on  the  lime  contained  in  the  marl. 


MARL.  83 

How  wisely  has  Nature  adapted  every  thing  not 
only  to  use,  but  as  it  respects  location,  and  Providence 
never  suflers  them  to  be  discovered  until  they  are 
needed  by  man.  When  a  country  becomes  scarce  of 
wood,  extensive  coal  mines,  as  in  England,  are  discov- 
ered ;  or  peat  and  turf,  as  in  Ireland.  So  with  re- 
spect to  marl.  Now  it  is  a  fact  that  beds  of  clay 
marl,  the  very  substance  needed,  are  generally  found 
under  sandy  soils,  and  shell  and  stone  marls  under 
clayey  soils.  And  how  wisely  has  Nature  designed 
it,  that  every  thing  which  springs  from  the  earth  shall 
go  back  to  it,  a  proof  that  Providence  never  intended 
the  land  to  wear  out,  and  it  never  would  but  for  the 
ignorance  and  folly  of  man.  All  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble matter  that  springs  from,  or  exists  on  the  earth, 
undergoes  the  chymical  process  of  decomposition, 
and  is  resolved  into  water  and  air,  in  which  forms 
they  serve  to  nourish  other  animals  and  other  veg;eta- 
bles,  thus  almost  agreeing  with  the  doctrine  of  trans- 
migration of  souls,  held  by  some  of  the  oriental  na- 
tions. 

There  is  a  mode  of  making  artificial  marl,  which 
is  as  follows :  Place  in  a  pile  a  layer  of  good  clay, 
and  upon  it  a  layer  of  lime,  and  so  on  alternately,  un- 
til it  rises  to  a  heap;  there  being  equal  quantities  of 
clay  and  lime.  Let  this  lie  exposed  all  winter,  and 
in  the  spring  spread  it  upon  a  light  soil  and  it  will  be 
beneficial;  but  if  the  soil  is  a  heavy  clay,  then  the 
composition  should  be  lime,  sand,  and  loam.     These 


84  MARL. 

mixtures  will  greatly  resemble  the  true  calcareous 
earth,  and  will  repay  the  labor. 

I  spoke  above  of  spreading  the  marl  in  the  spring, 
but  the  proper  time  is  in  the  summer,  as  the  marl  is 
then  very  dry.  The  farmer,  however,  can  use  his 
pleasure,  and  put  it  on  the  land  even  in  winter,  when 
he  has  nothing  else  to  do. 

The  ground  should  be  put  in  proper  order  before 
the  marl  is  spread  upon  it.  All  weeds  should  be  ex- 
terminated, and  the  ground  rendered  level  by  the  use 
of  the  harrow.  This  is  necessary,  because  then  the 
marl  may  be  equally  spread  over  the  soil,  and  have 
an  equal  effect  on  every  part  of  it.  In  the  spring  it 
should  be  harrowed  into  the  soil,  but  with  great  cau- 
tion; as  from  its  weight,  it  has  a  tendency  to  sink  too 
deep  into  the  soil,  and  thus  by  falling  in  the  furrow 
made  by  improperly  ploughing  it  in,  its  virtue  is  lost, 
and  the  ignorant  farmer  condemns  it  as  a  valueless  sub- 
stance. The  great  object  should  be  to  incorporate  the 
marl  thoroughly  with  the  soil,  so  that  it  shall  become 
a  part  and  parcel  of  it.  In  its  thorough  incorporation 
with  the  soil  lies  all  the  benefit ;  if  it  remain  upon 
the  top,  or  in  the  furrow,  the  effects  are  but  par- 
tial. 

The  quantity  of  marl  which  should  be  spread  upon 
land  is  another  matter  of  importance.  I  would  re- 
commend too  small  a  portion  rather  than  too  large, 
as  it  is  much  more  easy  to  add  to  than  take  from.  On 
a  sandy  soil  a  thick  coat  may  be  spread  with  safety, 


MARL.  85 

as  it  will  tend  to  bind  the  land,  and  cause  it  to  retain 
every  thing  that  falls  upon  it.  On  stiff  soils  a  thin 
coat  should  be  spread,  sufficient  to  render  it  more  po- 
rous, by  which  it  may  receive  and  retain  whatever 
falls  upon  it. 

"  To  find  the  composition  of  marl,''  says  the  Do- 
mestic Encyclopedia,  ''  pour  a  few  ounces  of  diluted 
muriatic  acid  into  a  Florence  flask ;  place  them  in  a 
scale,  and  let  them  be  balanced ;  then  reduce  a  few  oun- 
ces of  dry  marl  into  powder ;  and  let  this  powder  be 
carefully  and  gradually  thrown  into  the  flask,  until  af- 
ter repeated  additions,  no  farther  effervescence  is  per- 
ceived. Let  the  remainder  of  the  powdered  marl  be 
weighed;  by  which,  the  quantity  projected  will  be 
known.  Let  the  balance  be  then  restored.  The  dif- 
ference of  weight  between  the  quantity  projected  and 
that  requisite  to  restore  the  balance,  will  shew  the 
weight  of  air  lost  during  effervescence.  [That  air 
proceeds  from  the  calcareous  earth  alone,  w^hich  con- 
tains 44  per  cent,  of  this  carbonic  acid  air.  Suppose 
500  grains  of  marl  lose  44  grains  by  the  escape  of  air, 
then  that  marl  contained  lOOgrains,  or  one-fifth  of  its 
whole  weight  of  limestone. — T.  C]  If  the  loss 
amount  to  twenty  or  twenty-five  per  cent,  of  the  quan- 
tity of  marl  projected,  the  marl  assayed  is  calcareous 
marl,  or  marl  rich  in  calcareous  earth.  Clayey  marls, 
or  those  in  which  the  argillaceous  ingredient  prevails, 
lose  only  8  or  10  per  cent,  of  their  weight  by  this 

treatment,  and  sandy  marls  about  the  same  proportion. 
8 


8^  wiitL. 

1* he  presence  6f  tnuch  argitlacedus  fearth  may  te 
judged  by  drying  the  nfiarl,  after  being  washed  with 
spirit  of  salt,  when  it  will  harden  and  form  a  brick. 

"  To  determine  with  still  greater  precision,  the 
quantity  of  calcareous  earth  in  marl,  let  the  solution 
in  muriatic  acid  be  filtered  and  mixed  with  a  solution 
of  carbonate  of  potasli,  till  no  further  precipitation 
sippear.  Let  the  sediment  subside  ;  wash  it  well  with 
water;  lay  it  on  a  filter,  previously  weighed,  and  dry 
it.  The  weight  of  the  dry  mass  will  show  how  much 
carbonate  of  lime,  the  quantity  of  marl,  submitted  to 
experiment,  contained.'' 

There  have  been  a  variety  of  opinions  held  at  dif- 
ferent periods  of  the  world,  concerning  the  efficacy 
of  marl  as  a  manure ;  for  it  is  certainly  of  very  an- 
cient date.  Lord  Bacon  defines  marl  to  be  the  best 
compost  in  use-, ^having  fatness,  and  being  nutritious 
to  the  earth.  An  ancient  author  declares,  that  a 
piece  of  land  once  marled  continued  fertile  eighteen 
years,  while  Anderson's  statement  is  thirty  years,  with- 
out further  improvement.  These  are  no  doubt  exag- 
gerations. 

The  word  marl  signifies  in  its  original  meaning, 
marrcwy  or  fatness,  from  the  supposition  that  it  impart- 
ed fatness  to  the  earth ;  though,  as  has  been  shown,  it 
acts  from  binding  or  opening  the  pores  of  the  soil,  and 
from  attracting  moisture  from  the  atmosphere.  The 
lime  has  also  the  power  of  decomposing  vegetable 
and  animal  substances  in  the  earth. 


HORSES*  ^7 

ON     THE      MODE      OF 

RAISING  AND  TRAINING  HORSES. 

You  should  in  all  cases  endeavor  in  the  first  place, 
to  obtain  a  good  breed  of  horses ;  and,  particularly, 
you  should  aim  to  get  that  kind  which  is  full  made, 
and  full  of  action.  For  breeding  mares,  choose  such 
as  will  breed  after  the  horse,  and  then  you  will  find 
no  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  good  stake  of  hors€3. 

As  soon  as  your  mares  have  colts,  you  should  com- 
ijfience  handling  them,  and  so  continue  on  until  three 
or  fou^  years  old.  Great  care  should  be  taken  of 
them,  Too  much  grain  should  not  be  given  them 
while  young,  but  plenty  of  good  hay,  and  salt  once  a 
week,  if  you  do jqotlive  near  the  salt  marshes.  When 
you  commence  breaking.the  colts,  you  should  be  very 
gentle  with  them,  and  never,  suffer  them  to  be  storm- 
ed at  or  abused.  Put  the  bridle  on  them,  let  them 
stand  two  or  three  hours  at  a  time,  and  then  lead  them 
about  the  yard  several  times  in  a  day.  In  the  next 
place,  the  saddle  should  be  put  on  and  girted  rather 
tight;  again  be  led  about;  after  which  a  light  boy 
should  ride  it,  whil;e  you  mount  ahorse  and  ride  along 
side.  Thus  propeed  up  and  down  the  road  together ; 
then  put  your  carriage  harness  on,  and  let  the  colt 
stand  about  an  hour  every  day.  Be  sure  to  girt  your 
hiarness  on  well,  and  never*  suffer  the  colt  to  become 
entf^njjlecl  in  thu^nji;  Le^d  it  abpi^t,  once  a  day,  witiji  \\i^ 


88  HOUSES. 

harness  on;  and  then  put  one  of  your  horses  in  the  shafts 
of  the  carriage,  whilst  you  hitch  the  colt  along  side, 
with  the  harness  on.  Drive  them  in  this  way  several 
times,  then  put  the  colt  in  the  shafts  and  drive  them 
several  times,  with  the  old  horse  at  his  side.  While 
you  are  on  the  road,  you  should  have  the  old  horse 
ridden  ahead  of  the  young  one,  and  then  drive  the 
latter  by  himself.  By  this  process,  you  will  have  a 
first  rate  family  horse,  gentle  and  docile. 

That  peculiar  people, — the  Turks, — at  Constanti- 
nople, give  the  following  account  of  the  Turkish 
horse.  Our  own  wise  people  may  learn  a  lesson  of 
humanity  from  their  words.  "  There  is  no  creature 
so  gentle  and  respectful  to  his  master,  as  the  Turkish 
horse.  The  reason  is,  they  treat  their  horses  with 
great  lenity ;  they  make  them  lovers  of  mankind,  and 
they  are  so  far  from  kicking,  wincing  or  growing  un- 
tractable  by  this  gentle  usage,  that  you  will  hardly  find 
a  vicious  horse  among  them."  Alas!  "  our  christian 
grooms  go  on  another  rate.  They  never  think  them 
rightly  curried  until  they  thunder  at  them  with  their 
voices,  and  let  their  clubs  or  horsewhips  dwell  on 
their  sides.  This  makes  some  horses  tremble  when 
their  keeper  comes  into  the  stable,  so  that  they  hate 
and  fear  them  too.  But  the  Turks  love  to  have  their 
horses  so  gentle,  that  at  the  word  of  command  they 
may  fall  on  their  knees,  and  in  that  position  receive 
their  riders.  They  will  take  up  a  staffer  club  on 
the  road  which  their  rider  has  let  fall,  and  hold  it  up  to 


HORSES.  ^^ 

l^im  ?ig^in.  I  have  seen  some  horses  when  their  mas- 
ter was  falling  from  the  saddle  stand  still,  without  mo- 
ving a  foot,  until  he  got  up  again.  Once  I  savy  soin§ 
horses  when  their  masters  were  at  dinner,  prick  up 
their  ears  to  hear  their  voices;  and  when  they  did  so, 
neighed  for  joy." 

DISEASES   OF    HORSES. 

I  shall  add  to  this  work,  a  short  treatise  on  the 
most  frequent  diseases  to  which  this  noble  animal  is 
subject.  Of  all  the  creatures  which  an  All  Wise 
Providence  has  given  to  man,  the  horse  is  without 
controversy  the  noblest,  the  most  valuable  and  useful. 
How  necessary,  then,  that  the  diseases  of  so  useful  a 
creature  should  be  understood !  Yet  how  melan- 
choly the  fact,  that  in  all  the  Medical  Schools  of 
America,  there  has  never  been  established  a  veterina- 
ry chair,  notwithstanding  the  warmth  with  which  the 
celebrated  Dr.  Rush  urged  the  necessity,  and  the  ad- 
vantage. A  veterinary  chair  in  the  schools  of  Europp 
is  common.  Farriery,  as  well  as  physic,  should  be 
taught  and  studied  as  a  profession.  The  horse  should 
be  known  from  his  anatomy  to  his  diseases;  for,  next 
to  mankind,  he  ranks  in  the  scale  of  usefulness. 
Such  a  knowledge  would  save  thousands  of  these  in- 
dispensable creatures  from  destruction  prematurely, 
^^d  save  thousands  of  dollars  to  the  ignorant  owners 
of  them. 

Ip  the  fpll9J5fin^  ^hpr.t  treatise^  I  shall^spe^ak  only  of 


90  H(Wtsfis; 

the  more  prominent  diseases  to  which  the  horse  is 
subject;  such  as  colic,  botts,  distemper,  blind  staggers, 
scratches,  &c. 

GOLIC* 

This  disease  attacks  the  horse  very  suddenly,  and 
carries  off  many  noble  animals  •,  and,  yet,  if  taken  in 
its  early  stages,  it  is  easily  cored.  The  causes  of 
colic  in  horses  are  numerous,  among  which  I  shall  enu- 
merate the  following.  I  have  known  bad  food,  such 
as  improperly  cured  hay,  to  produce  it.  Horses  that 
are  warmly  clothed  and  well  housed,  are  attacked 
with  it  from  drinking  very  cold  water.  Sometimes  it 
is  brought  on  by  a  draught  of  cold  water,  after  hav- 
ing travelled  rapidly.  Again  there  can  be  no  cause 
apparently  assigned,  save  a  sudden  loss  of  tone  in  the 
stomach  or  bowels,  causing  a  spasmodic  stricture  of 
the  intestine,  and  a  consequent  retention  of  air.  Con- 
fined air  is  very  frequently  the  cause  of  this  disease. 

The  symptoms  of  this  painful  disease,  are  as  fol- 
lows :  In  the  beginning,  the  horse  appears  uneasy, 
paws  the  ground,  and  vainly  attempts  to  evacuate. 
After  a  while  his  agony  increases,  he  throws  his  head 
from  side  to  side,  and  groans,  as  if  he  would  tell  his 
misery.  At  length  he  tumbles  down,  and  rolls  over, 
while  a  profuse  sweat  breaks  out  upon  him.  At  in- 
tervals he  appears  to  get  better ;  he  gets  up ;  but  the 
spasm  returns,  and  he  suffers  still  greater  agony. 
The  pulse  remains  nearly  the  same,  and  no  fever  is 


flORSEI?.  SI 

observable.  Though  sometimes  the  disease  will  grad- 
ually abate,  without  the  application  of  any  remedy; 
yet  frequently  the  air  continues  to  accumulate  in  the 
intestine,  until  inflammation  takes  place,  or  perhaps 
rupture,  when  the  unhappy  horse  immediately  sinks 
and  dies. 

A  very  good  remedy  in  this  disease,  is  a  quart  of 
gin,  in  which  a  small  portion  of  tobacco  has  been  boil- 
ed. Hold  the  horse's  head  back,  and  drench  him 
with  it.  If  the  pulse  becomes  quick,  three  quarts  of 
blood  should  be  taken,  in  order  to  relieve  the  spasm 
and  prevent  inflammation  of  the  intestine.  The  first 
draught  will  generally  relieve,  in  the  early  stage  of 
the  disease  ;  but  should  the  misery  continue  an  hour 
or  two,  repeat  the  draught  of  gin  and  tobacco.  If 
this  should  not  be  found  to  answer  the  purpose,  ad- 
minister a  pint  of  castor  oil,  with  an  ounce  and  a  half 
of  laudanum.  The  horse,  after  he  gets  up,  should  be 
well  rubbed  and  clothed  with  blankets. 

The  best  manner  in  which  a  draught  can  be  admin- 
istered, is  by  means  of  a  bottle  with  a  long  neck. 
The  bottle  is  introduced  into  the  horse's  mouth,  as  far 
as  possible,  so  that  the  liquid  will  run  down  his  throat. 
His  head  should  be  elevated  high  enough  to  prevent 
him  from  throwing  out  the  liquid.  His  tongue  must 
be  at  liberty,  in  order  that  he  may  swallow,  that  or- 
gan being  absolutely  necessary  to  that  operation. 


09  HORSED. 

BOTTS. 

According  to  zoology,  botts  are  nothing  more  or 
less  than  a  kind  of  worms,  hatched  and  nourished  in 
the  al'mientary  canal  of  a  horse.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  worms  to  which  horses  are  liable.  These 
are  truncheons,  mawworms  and  botts. 

The  truncheons  are  considered  most  dangerous. 
They  derive  their  name  from  being  short  and  thick, 
with  dark  heads.  They  are  found  in  the  stomacj) 
or  maw,  through  which  they  eat,  and  destroy  the 
h  orse. 

The  maw-worm  is  found  in  the  maw,  somewhat 
like  an  earth  worm,  and  of  a  reddish  color.  They  ^fjE^ 
about  three  inches  in  length. 

The  bott  is  found  in  the  great  gut.  Though  a 
small  worm,  they  have  a  large  head.  Botts  and  the 
nitts,  may  be  found  in  the  excrement  of  the  horse,  ais 
well  as  in  the  fundament. 

It  is  a  species  of  fly  which  lays  the  egg  of  the  bott. 
Some  authors  contend,  that  the  female  fly  enters  the 
anus  of  the  horse  and  there  lays  her  eggs ;  that  they 
are  hatched  by  the  heat  of  the  parts,  and  ascend  into 
the  intestines  and  stomach.  Other  authors  contend 
that  the  fly  lays  her  eggs  on  the  hair  and  legs  of  the 
horse,  and  that  from  the  itching,  he  carries  his  mouth 
to  the  spot,  gathers  them  in  the  saliva,  and  finally  suckn 
them  into  the  mouth,  from  whence  they  descend  into 
the  stomach.    These  flies  are  seldom  found  in  cities, 


HORSES. 


gs 


and  the  horses,  if  kept  in  stables,  are  seldom  affect- 
ed. 

I  have  seen  these  botts,  which  are  large  maggots, 
put  into  strong  Nitric  Acid,  (Aqua  Fortis,)  through 
which  they  waded  apparently  as  if  it  had  been  water. 
The  Sulphuric  Acid,  (Oil  of  Vitriol,)  was  then  pour- 
ed upon  them,  which  completely  cooked  them. 

The  bott  is  of  a  singular  construction.  Around 
them  are  circular  rings,  and  they  have  prickly  feet, 
which  enable  them  to  hold  on  to  the  part  where  they 
breed.  The  rough  muscular  coats  of  the  stomach  are 
well  suited  to  them,  for  there  they  cling  and  suck 
like  leeches,  until  the  part  looks  like  a  honey- 
comb. They  cause  convulsions,  and  often  throw  the 
horse  into  great  agonies,  painful  indeed  to  wit- 
ness. 

It  may  be  easily  discovered,  whether  a  horse  is  trou- 
bled with  any  of  these  worms,  by  the  following  r  He 
will  strike  at  his  belly  with  his  hind  legs,  and  paw 
the  ground  with  his  fore  legs.  He  will  turn  his  head 
to  look  behind,  as  if  trying  to  discover  the  cause  of 
his  agony.  He  will  also  groan  like  one  in  misery, 
and  roll  his  restless  eyes. 

Botts  are  not  often  discovered  to  be  in  the  stomach 
of  the  horse,  until  they  have  acquired  considerable 
size  ;  and  hence  they  are  very  dangerous.  They  are 
not  so  dangerous  in  the  beginning  of  summer,  in  the 
straight  gut,  for  they  often  come  away  in  the  dung. 
The  worst  effect  is,  that  they  render  the  horse  rest- 


94  HORSES. 

less.  The  horse  suffers  most  from  them  in  May  and 
June,  for  they  seldom  disturb  him  longer  than  from 
fifteen  to  twenty-five  days  at  a  time. 

From  the  following  symptoms,  it  may  be  known 
when  the  horse  is  suffering  from  the  truncheon  or 
maw- worm.  His  hair  stands  out  the  wrong  way,  and 
he  strikes  his  hind  feet  against  his  belly.  He  looks 
jaded,  becomes  lean,  and  lias  spasms  in  the  belly.  He 
will  occasionally  after  being  griped,  stretch  himself 
on  his  belly,  and  then  get  up  to  his  food.  But  above 
^11,  the  presence  of  the  worms  in  the  excrement 

Now  to  the  cure.  Calomel,  repeated  in  large 
doses,  is  an  excellent  remedy  for  botts  in, t|be  stomach. 
After  the  calomel,  an  active  purge. 

For  botts  in  the  straight  gut,  give  thp  fpllowii^g: 
Savin^  a  spoonful ;  cut  into  small  pieces,  twice  a  day, 
in  moistened  mealy  to  which  add  four  or  five  clo^^^s  of 
garlic. 

Perhaps  thjere  is  no  better  treatment  than,  the  fal- 
lowing :  Let  t,he  horse  b^  kept  from  food  du^'ing 
one  day,  and  at  night  give  him  a  mixture  of  molassQS  ' 
and  milk.  This,  it  is  said,  will  cause  the  botts  to  lose 
their  hold,  and  pass  off  by  the  bowels.  Or  bran  and 
warm  water,  in  small  quantities,  m;^y  be  given.  As 
soon  as  possible,  after  this,  give  him  a  ball  made  of 
bread  and  honey ;  mix  with  one  scruple  of  turbith 
mineral  and  the  same  quantity  of  calomel.  The  next 
evening  give  him  one  pint  of  castor,  and  half  a  pint 
of  linseed  qij.     It  is  supposed  that  the  worms,  in  their 


HORSES.  95 

eagerness  for  food,  will  eat  the  mercurial  ftiixture, 
which  will  destroy  them,  and  that  the  oils  will  throw 
them  oflf. 

APOPLEXY,    OR    BLIND   STAGGERS. 

This  disease,  in  the  brain  of  the  horse,  is  caused 
by  too  great  an  accumulation  of  blood  in  that  part. 
The  symptoms  are  a  want  of  appetite  ;  drowsiness ; 
inflamed  and  watery  eyes,  and  a  staggering  movement 
of  the  animal,  from  which  the  disease  takes  its  name. 
The  head  of  the  suffering  creature  leans  on  the  man- 
ger; the  urine  is  discharged  in  small  quantities,  and 
fever  prevails  in  the  system.  Sometimes,  in  the  ad- 
vanced stages,  he  reels  about  as  if  blind,  and  unable 
to  keep  his  feet  or  see  his  way.  Sometimes  he 
beats  his  head  against  the  wall,  and  is  struck  for- 
cibly to  the  earth,  as  if  by  some  invisible  power. 

The  causes,  besides  too  great  fulness  of  blood  in 
the  brain,  are  as  follows:  Colds,  caught  by  being  turn- 
ned  out  into  the  field  too  early,  after  violent  exer- 
tion; high  feeding;  want  of  exercise,  and  by  moist 
cobwebs^  either  taken  in  through  the  nose  or  mouth* 

If  the  first,  or  too  much  blood  in  the  brain,  be  the 
cause,  copious  bleeding  must  be  resorted  to ;  two 
quarts  of  blood  from  the  neck,  and  a  pint  from  the 
thigh;  after  which  administer  half  a  pint  of  linseed 
oil,  the  same  of  castor,  forty  grains  of  calomel,  sixty 
of  jalop,  and  two  ounces  tincture  of  aloes.  Gii^e 
the   above  every  morning  and  evening,  and  be  par- 


9$  Worses. 

ticular  to  avoid  all  cold  water,  as  it  is  very  injuri- 
ous. 

If  the  animal  being  turned  too  suddenly  to  grass  af- 
ter great  exertion  be  the  cause,  it  will  be  proper  to 
bleed  freely,  and  with  straw  to  support  the  head.  Al- 
so a  clyster  of  senna  and  salt  should  be  given,  morn- 
ing and  evening.  The  fumes  of  burning  tar  passed 
tip  his  nose  will  be  found  excellent,  inasmuch  as  the 
disease  proceeds  from  cold.  Equal  parts  of  an- 
timony, cinnabar  and  guiaciitn,  made  into  doses  of 
one  ounce,  should  be  given  every  day  for  a  month. 

If  fulness  of  blood,  want  of  exercise,  or  high  feed- 
ing be  the  cause,  small  quantities  of  blood  must  be 
frequently  taken,  and  a  diet  given  which  will  have  a 
tendency  to  open  the  bowels. 

With  respect  to  cobwebs  as  a  cause  of  this  disease 
very  little  is  known ;  and  it  is  useless  to  say  any 
thing  further  here. 

SCRATCHES   OR    GREASE. 

This  disease  is  said  lo  be  very  prevalent  among  the 
horses  of  England,  owing  to  the  carelessness  and  bad 
management  observed.  It  arises  from  excessive  la- 
bor, a  miry  stable,  and  from  suffering  the  hair  to  grow 
long  on  the  fetlocks  without  being  cleansed  from  the 
dung  and  dirt  which  collect  there.  The  dirt  collects, 
becomes  hard  and  heats  the  foot,  even  so  as  to  disease 
the  sole.  Owing  to  this,  the  foot  and  leg  swell,  from 
which  a  matter  is  thrown  out  much  resembling  grease, 


HORSES.  07 

from  which  the  disease  derives  in  part  its  name.  The 
joints  become  stiff  and  swollen,  and  the  horse  entirely 
lame. 

Let  it  be  forever  remembered  that,  instead  of  suf- 
fering the  hair  to  grow,  as  many  people  believe  to  be 
an  advantage,  in  preserving  the  foot  from  injuries  on 
hard  roads,  it  should  be  kept  trimmed  and  clean.  If 
the  hair  that  grows  on  the  part,  is  the  only  defence 
against  injury  from  stones  or  frozen  earth,  it  is  a  poor 
one,  and  not  worthy  the  attention  of  the  farrier. 
Such  injury  bears  no  comparison  to  that  inflicted  by 
the  disease.  Another  thing  should  be  remembered. 
A  horse  should  never  be  rowelled  for  this  disease,  as 
all  experience  djemonstrates  the  fact,  that  instead  of 
proving  a  cure,  it  too  often  leads  to  consumption. 

The  best  remedy  for  this  disease,  with  which  I  am 
acquainted,  is  the  following:  Clean  the  part  with  a 
corn  cob,  and  wash  it  well  with  strong  soapsuds;  af- 
ter which  apply  a  plaster  of  boiled  tar.  According 
to  my  experience,  this  remedy  never  fails.  The  fol- 
lowing is  very  good  in  the  incipient  stages  of  the  dis- 
ease :  Four  ounces  of  Venice  turpentine,  one  ounce 
of  quicksilver,  and  grind  them  until  the  quicksilver 
disappears ;  then  add  mutton  suet  and  honey,  each 
two  ounces.  Anoint  the  part  once  or  twice  a  day, 
with  this  composition. 

But  if  the  horse  is  of  full  habit,  and  the  hair  turns 
the  wrong  way,  then  a  more  extensive  practice  must 
be  pursued.     He  must  be  bled,  purged,  and  altera- 


98  HORSES. 

tives  used,  to  correct  the  vitiated  state  of  the 
blood. 

Sometimes  deep  seated  sores  and  cavities  are  form^ 
ed  in  tlie  horse's  heels.  In  this  case,  the  knife  must 
be  resorted  to ;  the  parts  laid  open,  and  one  of  the 
preparations,  above  spoken  of,  applied  ;  for  the  ap- 
plication must  be  made  to  the  bottom,  or  a  cure  can- 
not be  effected. 

The  following  is  an  excellent  purge  in  this  disease: 
Two  ounces  Aloes,  three  drachms  Rhubarb^  two 
drachms  Calomel^  and  oil  of  aniseed  enough  to 
make  a  mass.     Divide  this  into  two  pills^  or  balls. 

A  pint  and  a  half  of  Castor  oil  may  be  given  for 
a  purge. 

FOUNDERED. 

This  is  a  disease  in  the  feet  of  horses,  and  arises 
from  the  following  causes:  First ^  severe  labour; 
second  J  too  great  a  quantity  of  new  grain  ;  third,  hard 
riding;  fourth,  sudden  colds;  fifth,  great  heats. 
These  inflame  the  blood,  and  as  farriers  say,  melt  the 
grease,  which  settles  into  the  feet,  causing  the  disease 
above  named.  Thomas  Cooper  declares  this  disease 
to  be  a  species  of  gout,  '^produced  by  permitting  the 
animal  to  eat  or  drink  heartily  while  hut ;  or  by  vio- 
lent exercise  on  a  full  stomach." 

The  general  mode  of  treating  this  disease  is  to 
bleed  first,  and  if  not  entirely  effectual,  cooling  salts, 
clysters,  and  an  opening  diet  to  be  administered,  to 


HORSES.  99 

kss€n  the  rapid  circulation.  Emollient  poultices  are 
applied  around  the  hoof,  to  soften  and  restore  an  equal 
perspiration.  I  have  found  hot  brine  bathed  over  the 
parts  to  be  an  excellent  external  application.  The 
horse  should  be  led  about  immediately  after. 

The  hard  part  of  the  sole  should  be  cleared  away, 
in  order  that  the  poultice  may  be  applied  for  the  open- 
ing the  pores.  No  greasy  application  should  be  made 
under  any  pretence  whatever,  as  they  are  all  injuri- 
ous. Exercise,  as  the  horse  can  bear  it,  is  very  ben- 
eficial. 

I         ,  LOSS  OF  APPETITE. 

It  is  often  the  case,  as  every  farmer  will  readily  ac- 
knowledge, that  the  horse  from  bad  management,  or 
ill  treatment,  will  lose  his  appetite  and  refuse  the  choi- 
cest food.  The  causes  are  cold,  a  long  journey,  too 
great  labor,  and  an  exess  of  food.  When  this  is  the 
case,  he  looks  hollow  eyed,  lean,  and  his  hair  dry  and 
frizzy.  He  appears  dull,  and  has  little  disposition  to 
move. 

Eggshells  are  an  excellent  remedy.  They  should 
be  dried  before  the  fire  until  they  are  very  dry,  but 
not  scorched;  and  then  powdered  in  a  mortar.  Then 
scald  some  bran  and  sift  the  eg^  shells  into  it.  Give 
the  horse  a  small  draught  of  this  two  or  three  times  a 
day,  and  the  eff*ect  will  be  very  soon  visible.  It  will 
loosen  him,  and  act  as  a  tonic  in  restoring  the  lost 
tone  of  the  stomach.    Also,  wrap  a  piece  of  Assa- 


100  HORSESr- 

p 

foelida  around  the  bit  of  the  bridle,  and  keep  the  sicK 
horse  from  the  society  of  other  horses.  1  have  seen 
wonderful  effects  produced,  in  restoring  decayed  ap- 
petite, by  simply  tying  a  small  piece  of  this  substance 
round  the  bit  of  the  bridle,  and  keeping  it  in  the 
horse's  mouth.  In  a  short  time  he  became  more  live- 
ly and  active,  and  soon  showed  symptoms  of  return- 
ing appetite. 

In  obstinate  cases,  it  is  recommended  to  take  a 
quart  of  blood  from  the  neck  vein,  and  afterwards  to 
administer  a  purge.  Where  there  is  a  foulness  of 
stomach,  it  is  recommended  to  diet  the  horse  a  few 
days,  or  one  or  two  days,  before  giving  the  purge. 
Let  him  be  one  or  two  hours  before,  and  the  same 
time  after  taking  the  medicine,  without  food. 

An  excellent  purge  is  the  following ;  Julop,  one 
drachm ;  Jlloes,  one  ounce ;  Rhubarb,  one  drachm ; 
with  Castor  Oil  sufficient  to  make  it  into  a  mass.  A 
while  after  he  has  taken  this,  give  him  gentle  exercise 
in  the  open  air. 

SPAVIN. 

There  are  two  grades  of  this  disease,  the  one  call- 
ed the  blood  spavin,  and  the  other  the  bone  spe^- 
vin. 

The  blood  spavin  is  a  soft  swelling,  which  appears 
on  the  inside  of  the  hock,  some  suppose  the  master 
vein;  but  it  is  erroneous.     A  horse  afflicted  with  this 


HORSES.  101 

disease,  raises  his  leg  from  the  ground  with  a  stiff  jerk, 
and  he  appears  to  have  a  lame  movement,  "  * '  ^ 
The  first  thing  to  be  done  towards  a  cure,  is  to  cut 
off  the  hair  from  the  part  swollen,  and  alter  rubbing;, 
with  a  piece  of  soap,  round  the  outside  of  the  spaviri) 
apply  a  blister  composed  as  follows :  Hogs  lard^ 
half  an  ounce;  ^eeswao;,  three  drachms;  Sublimatey 
half  a  drachm ;  and  Cantharides ,  two  drachms. 
This  generally  effects  a  cure;  if  not,  repeat  the  blis- 
ter. Let  the  blister  be  spread  upon  a  piece  of  soft 
white  leather. 

BONE   SPAVIN. 

The  second  form  of  spavin  is  called  bone  spavin^ 
which  consists  of  a  bony  excrescence,  or  hard  swell- 
ing on  the  inside  pf  the  hock,  a  little  under  the  joint, 
somewhat  lower  than  a  blood  spavin.  It  often  causes 
lameness  just  before  it  makes  its  appearance,  which 
may  be  discovered  by  feeling  the  part,  which  is  hot 
and  tender.  The  same  treatment  as  in  blood  spa- 
vin. 

A  blister  should  be  applied,  and  repeated  as  often 
as  necessary.  But  when  the  disease  is  of  long  stand- 
ing, the  cure  often  becomes  difficult.  Should  this  be 
the  case,  the  skin  should  be  irritated  with  caustic,  and 
the  day  after,  the  application  of  a  strong  blister  will 
be  necessary.  After  this,  the  horse  should  rest  seve- 
ral months. 

I  have  said  thus  much  on  the  most  common  diseases 

^      gilt  ^'n 3  j4J  0^^f|  h\mm\motiom'^)  >-i  /r^>0l 


102  cows. 

of  the  horse,  because  there  are  so  few  who  know  how 
to  treat  this  noble  animal  when  he  lies  stretched  and 
groaning  at  their  feet.  If  owners  of  horses  would 
but  study  superficially  these  diseases,  how  many  fine 
beasts  might  be  saved  from  incurable  malady,  or  a 
sudden  death ! 


O  N     TH  E 

IMPROVEMENT    OF   MILCH    COWS. 

So  soon  as  you  find  your  heifer  becomes  very  for- 
ward with  calf,  you  should  commence  feeding  her 
with  slops  or  some  kind  of  grain  ground,  so  as  to 
make  slops ;  and  that  will  cause  the  heifer  to  spring 
her  bag.  About  two  or  three  weeks  before  she  has 
her  calf,  and  the  same  time  after,  you  should  give 
her  some  short  corn ;  say  half  a  gallon  of  ears  each 
day,  which  will  strengthen  her,  and  she  will  soon  re- 
cover from  calving.  She  should  then  be  fed  high, 
and  that  will  make  her  one  of  the  first  rate  milch 
cows,  and  you  must  continue  on  to  feed  with  plenty 
of  hay  and  slops  during  the  whole  time  your  cows  are 
giving  milk. 

When  your  cow  has  had  her  second  calf,  and  it  has 
broken  and  made  the  bag  soft,  they  should  be  seper- 
ated.  The  cow  should  have  but  very  little  slops  or  hay 
to-day,  as  to-morrow  I  would  have  her  spaid..   After 


cows. 


103 


this  operation  is  performed,  and  while  she  is  getting 
well,  you  should  suffer  the  calf  to  suck  her  occasion- 
ally ;  but  never  suffer  it  to  hunch.  Your  milkmaid 
should,  in  milking  her,  strip  every  drop  that  she  can 
get,  as  a  neglect  of  this  practice  has  often  caused 
cows  to  go  dry.  The  milkmaid  should  be  very  gen- 
tle. The  milk  may  be  taken  from  the  cow  and  giv- 
en to  the  calf,  which  should  by  all  means  be  weaned 
so  soon  as  the  cow  gets  well. 

After  the  calf  is  weaned,  the  cow  should  be  fed 
very  high  on  slops,  grass,  and  hay,  which  course 
will  insure  the  cow  to  give  abundance  of  milk  for  ten 
or  fifteen  years,  and  generally  as  much  as  cows  give 
four  weeks  after  having  a  calf. 

One  thing  I  wish  particularly  to  mention.  All 
cows  should  be  housed  as  carefully  as  horses  are. 
They  should  have  their  stables,  and  their  beds  made 
in  wet  and  cold  weather.  A  cow  kept  in  a  good, 
warm  and  dry  stable,  will  become  fat  more  easily, 
and  her  milk  will  be  as  rich  as  yearling's.  Another 
thing  to  be  observed  is,  your  cow  should  be  curried 
and  rubbed  down  as  regularly  and  as  often  as  your 
horse  ;  morning  and  night  will  be  sufficient.  This 
course  will  render  your  cow  gentle  and  docile  as  a 
dog,  and  two  cows  thus  used  will  furnish  a  large  fam- 
ily in  the  country  with  milk  and  butter.  If  your  cows 
are  good,  they  will  give  from  two  to  three  gallons  at 
a  milking;  which  will  be  ten  or  twelve  gallons  per 
day.  The  more  pains  you  take  with  your  stock,  the 
finer  and  larger  they  will  be. 


104  BEEF    CATTLE. 


ON  RAISING  BEEF  CATTLE. 

Calveg  which  you  wish  to  grow  large,  should  be 
takcjn  when  about  two  weeks  old.  Their  feed  should 
be  as  follows  :  Take  a  s^all  quantity  of  Indian  mush 
made  thin,  and  put  into  it  an  eg^^  which  has  been 
well  beaten  in  a  bowl.  The  eg^  should  be  stirred  in 
the  mush  while  boiling,  and  afterward  some  milk  must 
be  stirred  in  the  same.  This  should  be  given  to  the  calf 
with  a  spoon,  until  it  learns  to  drink  the  mush  and 
milk.  It  should  be  regularly  fed  three  or  fcur  times  a 
day,  and  keep  it  in  or  under  a  dry  shed,  never  sjufFer- 
ing  it  to  run  out  until  it  is  a  year  old,  when  it  should 
be  transferred  to  a  small  clover  lot,  and  should  be 
curried  and  carded  two  or  three  times  a  day. 

By  pursuing  this  course,  you  can  have  your  beeves 
at  eight  years  old,  to  weigh  from  five  to  six  thousand 
pounds ;  which  will  bring  you  from  two  to  three 
thousand  dollars  for  each  beef. 

To  prove  what  I  am  going  to  relate,  concerning  a 
calf  of  mine  treated  in  this  manner,  I  shall  refer  you 
to  the  inhabitants  of  Talbot  County,  Eastern  Shore  of 
Maryland,  at  the  last  cattle  show  in  Maryland  in  1826. 
I  took  a  small  runt  of  a  calf,  and  commenced  feeding 
it  in  the  above  manqqr.  At  the  time  the  cattle  show 
^came  on,  my  calf  was  eighteen  months  old,  and 
weighed  twelve  hundred  pounds  alive ;  and  if  I  had 
^CjOntiau^d  on  u^tU  jt  Ijad  been  eight  years  old,  what 


Hoasi  103 

would  it  not  have  been  ia  the  same  ratio?  I  say 
it  would  have  weighed  six  thousand  four  hundred 
pounds. 

There  were  two  beeves  passed  through  Baltimore 
for  Washington  city,  about  the  middle  of  March, 
1838,  which  were  said  to  weigh  four  thousand  each  ; 
and  both  of  them  sold  for  three  thousand  five  hundred 
dollars. 

Well,  then,  my  gentle  readers,  suppose  you  had 
been  keeping  twenty  head  of  cattle  during  the  same 
time,  in  the  manner  graziers  keep  them  ;  and  you  car- 
ry them  to  market  on  the  same  day,  and  sell  them. 
They  will  not  bring  more  than  twelve  or  fifteen  hun- 
dred dollars. 

Now,  my  dear  reader,  is  it  not  better  to  keep  less 
stock  and  take  more  pains  with  them,  which  will 
bring  you  double  and  treble  the  amount  of  money  ?  I 
should  say  so ;  but  many  have  such  old  fashioned 
habits  that  they  will  not  retract.  Take  my  advice, 
and  depend  on  it  you  will  not  rue  it ;  for  if  you  will 
count  the  cost  between  raising  twenty  head  and  two 
head  for  eight  years,  I  think  you  will  be  ready  to 
agree  that  I  am  right. 


ON  THE  RAISING  OF  HOGS. 

You  should  take  the  best  breed  you  can  obtain  for 
your  ovv^n  interest,  which  will  be  those  that  will  fatten 


106  HOGS. 

young;  say  from  ten  to  fifteen  months  old.  Be  sure 
never  to  keep  your  hogs  over  one  winter,  as  they  be- 
come expensive  when  kept  longer.  Breeding  sows 
should  be  kept  in  fine  order  ;  and  as  soon  as  your  sow 
has  pigs,  and  even  before,  you  should  commence  giv- 
ing her  slops,  and  never  suffer  your  pigs  to  become 
poor ;  for  a  diminution  in  size  is  invariably  the  con- 
sequence. Put  them  in  a  pen,  so  soon  as  the  sow 
weans  them.  A  large  pot  should  be  kept  to  boil  po- ' 
tatoes,  pusley,  lambs  quarter,  cabbages,  &c.  Pump- 
kins, simblens,  and  all  kinds  of  vegetable  matter  when 
boiled,  will  give  far  more  nutritious  matter  than  when 
unboiled.  One  bushel  of  potatoes  boiled,  is  equal  in 
nutriment  to  a  bushel  and  a  half  raw.  The  above  sub- 
stances boiled,  should  be  put  into  a  hogshead,  togeth- 
er with  some  small  quantity  of  bran,  and  all  the  meat 
liquor  and  dish  water.  Let  it  stand  until  fermentation 
takes  place,  and  it  becomes  sour;  for  it  is  then  better 
for  hogs  than  when  perfectly  sweet. 

Keep  but  ^e\\  sows  that  you  intend  to  breed  from, 
and  as  soon  as  one  has  pigs,  or  the  next  day  after,  she 
should  not  have  much  to  eat,  for  the  course  of  twenty- 
four  or  thirty-six  hours ;  and  then  take  three  pints  of 
meal,  and  one  pint  of  hogs  lard,  or  the  skimmings  of 
the  pot ;  to  which  add  one  pint  of  salt;  work  them 
well  up  together,  and  spread  it  upon  a  board  arvd  bake 
it,  as  you  would  bake  bread,  until  nearly  done.  Give 
it  to  your  sow  as  hot  as  she  can  take  it.  In  one  day 
from  the  time  she  eats  it,  she  will  take  the  boar;  and 


HOGS.  107 

in  due  time  will  prove  with  pig.  Hogs  that  are  in- 
tended for  bacon,  should  never  run  at  large  ;  for  the 
best  pork  and  easiest  fattened,  is  that  which  is  kept 
up  in  pens.  They  are  fat,  w^hile  those  which  run 
out  are  lean  on  the  same  food;  and  another  advantage 
is,  that  when  kept  in  the  stye  they  are  out  of  the  corn 
field,  and  out  of  mischief. 

My  opinion  is,  that  any  man  who  has  from  two  to 
five  hundred  acres  under  cultivation,  can  kill  from  six 
^  to  ten  thousand  pounds  of  pork  annually.  This  too 
may  bfe  done  from  the  offal  of  the  farm,  for  instance  : 
small  Irish  potatoes,  lambs  quarter,  pusley,  pump- 
kins, &c.  As  soon  as  your  clover  is  old  enough  to 
cut,  give  your  hogs  a  portion  every  day,  and  your 
pork  will  be  of  the  very  best  kind. 

Your  pigs  should  be  trained  to  go  in  the  pen  with 
the  sows  to  eat  slops,  so  soon  as  they  are  large  enough  ; 
and  when  your  sows  are  about  to  wean  her  progeny, 
the  pigs  should  be  taught  to  go  into  the  pen,  where 
they  should  be  kept  about  half  their  time  at  first;  As 
soon  as  they  become  accustomed  to  confinement,  they 
should  be  put  up  in  a  clean  pen  for  good,  which  pen 
you  should  be  careful  to  keep  clean,  particularly  in 
warm  weather ;  for  I  have  seen  large  hogs,  of  three 
hundred  weight,  fall  victims  to  a  filthy  sty.  Besides 
the  loss,  filthy  pens  are  injurious  to  health,  producing 
fevers  and  malignant  diseases.  During  the  period  the 
Cholera  raged,  the  disease  was  traced  in  a  town,  in 
a  neighboring  State,  to  a  number  of  filthy  pens  con- 
tiguous to  each  other. 


108  H0t5S. 

Filthy  pens  cause  the  holes  in  the  legs  of  the  hogs 
to  be  stopped,  their  throats  become  affected,  and  they 
fall  helpless  to  the  ground  and  soon  die.  The  only 
remedy  is  to  wash  their  legs  Tn  a  tub  full  of  warm 
soap  suds,  with  a  stiff  brush,  and  run  a  knitting  nee- 
dle five  or  six  inches  up  those  holes,  until  they  are 
perfectly  cleansed.  The  throat  should  also  be  scrub- 
bed with  the  brush;  after  which,  grease  the  legs  and 
throat  with  tallow,  and  the  hogs  will  very  probably 
recover. 

BEST   MODE    OF    CURING    BACON. 

Hogs  should  never  be  killed  unless  in  a  thriving 
condition ;  and  if  the  weather  should  prove  cold,  you 
should,  when  salting  your  meat  for  bacon,  have  all 
your  salt  heated  tolerably  hot  in  a  pan.  With  this 
hot  mixture,  rub  your  meat  until  you  bring  the  grease 
out  of  it.  Pack  your  hams  in  a  hogshead  at  the  bot- 
tom ;  and  for  every  hundred  pounds  of  your  shoulders 
and  jaws,  take  one  bushel  of  alum  salt  ground,  or 
boiled  salt.  Let  your  pork  remain  for  seven  or  eight 
days,  and  then  make  your  pickle  to  bear  an  egg. 
For  every  1000  pounds  put  two  pounds  of  saltpetre, 
and  one  gallon  of  molasses.  Put  these  in  the  pickle, 
and  then  pour  it  down  the  side  of  the  cask  into  the 
meat,  and  let  it  remain  seven  weeks,  when  you  should 
rinse  your  meat  in  the  pickle,  and  hang  it  up  in  the 
smoke  house.  The  smoke  house  should  be  rendered 
as  dark  as  possible,  to  keep  out  the  flies;  for  it  is  from 


SHEEP.  109 

the  eggs  which  they  lay  in  the  meat,  that  the  worms 
originate. 

The  smoke  should  be  regularly  kept  up  until  the 
meat  stops  dripping ;  when  it  should  be  slackened. 
This  process  of  curing  bacon,  I  know  to  be  good ;  for 
I  have  tried  it  many  years,  and  never  knew  it  to  fail, 
while  my  neighbors  were  complaining  every  year  of 
spoiled  bacon. 


ON    THE 

MANAGEMENT    OF    SHEEP. 

You  should  endeavor,  in  purchasing  a  flock  of 
sheep,  to  get  them  in  good  health  and  sound ;  for  one 
bad  sheep  injures  the  whole  flock.  Pasture  your 
sheep  in  the  dryest  pasture  you  can  obtain,  which 
should  be  changed  for  another  of  the  same  kind, 
whenever  practicable ;  ?ind  have  the  sheep  penned 
every  night  in  a  dry  pound  well  littered,  and  give 
them  some  salt  once  or  twice  a  week.  Give  them  , 
about  a  gill  of  beans,  or  corn  ;  one  quart  of  potatoes, 
turnips  or  some  kind  of  vegetable  matter  that  will  be 
of  much  nutriment,  and  that  will  cause  your  sheep  to 
improve  in  flesh  and  wool.  This  treatment  will  ren- 
der them  gentle  and  docile  ;  and  in  the  summer  you 
should  pasture  your  sheep  in  the  woods,  if  not  too 

thick  with   undergrowth.      Be  sure  to  have  some 
10 


110  SHEEP* 

shades  round  your  sheep  pen,  so  that  they  can  retreat 
in  wet  weather,  which  will  prevent  them  from  tak- 
ing cold,  which  brings  on  many  disorders  among 
them. 

Be  particular  when  you  shear  your  sheep,  to  put 
them  under  these  shades ;  for  that  is  the  time  when 
they  are  most  injured  by  taking  cold.  You  should 
pay  strict  attention  when  they  are  about  to  have  lambs, 
and  feed  the  ewes  with  grain.  Sheep  should  be  fed 
in  winter  with  clover  hay,  which  has  been  salted ; 
and  while  feeding  on  this  hay  you  need  not  give  your 
sheep  any  salt. 

I  am  of  the  opinion  that  you  can  improve  a  flock 
of  sheep  as  much  in  proportion  as  you  can  your  stock 
of  cattle,  and  we  have  all  seen  to  what  extent  cattle 
have  been  improved.  Our  common  steer  will  only 
weigh  from  five  to  eight  hundred  pounds,  while  an 
improved  breed  passed  through  Baltimore  to  Wash- 
ington, one  of  which  weighed  four  thousand  pounds. 
Two  of  them  which  passed  through  in  March,  1838, 
weighed  four  thousand  each.  Here  then,  my  dear 
readers,  you  see  what  improvement  can  do  for  cattle ; 
and  by  the  same  judicious  mode  of  treatment,  your 
sheep  may  be  improved  likewise. 


BEES.  ,  111 

0  N     THE 

MANAGEMENT    OF    BEES. 

My  plan  for  the  management  of  the  honey  bee  is 
as  follows :  In  winter,  the  gums  should  stand  in  the 
warmest  place  that  can  be  found  ;  and  in  summer,  the 
coolest.  The  gums  should  be  set  about  three  feet 
from  the  ground,  and  a  sort  of  house  or  shed  should 
be  erected  over  them ;  so  as  to  shade  them  from  the 
sun  in  summer,  and  shield  them  from  the  blasts  of 
winter.  The  gums  should  hold  about  a  bushel,  and 
when  it  is  necessary  to  take  the  honey  from  them, 
they  should  be  raised  up  and  a  cloth  spread  under 
them.  Then  turn  up  the  cloth,  and  tie  a  cord  round 
the  gum  to  prevent  the  bees  from  coming  out  at  the 
bottom.  The  next  step  is  to  take  off"  the  head  of  the 
gum,  and  with  a  pipe  of  tobacco  blow  in  the  smoke 
at  the  top,  and  the  bees  will  settle  to  the  bottom  and 
remain  there,  while  you  are  blowing  in  the  smoke. 
So  soon  as  you  take  what  honey  you  think  proper, 
you  should  nail  on  the  top  again,  and  the  next  morn- 
ing take  off  the  cord  and  the  cloth.  The  bees  will 
cheerfully  resume  their  work  again,  and  fill  up  the 
hive. 

Two  or  three  empty  and  unoccupied  gums  should 
always  be  kept  on  hand ;  and  you  should  watch  your 
bees  vigilantly,  for  you  may  generally  tell  when  they 
are  about  to  swarm.     When  this  takes  place,  you 


112  BEES. 

should  have  an  iron  pan  or  some  sounding  body,  and 
with  an  iron  bar  beat  on  it,  which  will  cause  them  to 
pitch.  Then  take  one  of  the  spare  gums  and  rub  it 
inside  with  a  mixture  of  sweet  fennel,  salt  and  water, 
or  a  decoction  of  hickory  leaves,  with  salt  and  water; 
after  which  set  your  gum  on  a  clean  table,  covered 
with  a  cloth.  The  whole  should  be  placed  under  the 
limb  on  which  the  bees  have  pitched.  Shake  the 
limb  and  they  will  settle,  and  run  into  the  gum  and 
soon  go  to  work. 

When  your  gum  becomes  old,  you  should  kill  the 
bees,  as  they  are  good  for  nothing.  Should  your 
bees  fail,  on  account  of  the  severe  and  protracted 
w^inter,  or  of  being  robbed  too  close,  they  should  be 
fed  with  iTiolasses  and  water.  Never  suffer  any  per- 
son to  disturb  the  gums  by  thumping  against  them ; 
for  when  disturbed,  they  are  very  apt  to  commence 
eating  their  honey.  In  England,  they  destroy  the 
bees  in  robbing  them,  but  this  is  cruel,  besides  being 
useless  and  a  considerable  loss. 

In  a  bee  hive  we  behold  a  representation  of  a  re-  ^ 
public,  containing  from  ten  to  twenty  thousand  inhab- 
itants. In  this  republican  city,  industry  is  the  order 
of  the  day,  and  order  and  equality  are  every  where 
observed.  Their  houses,  or  cells  in  the  comb,  are 
made  of  virgin  wax,  and  these  not  only  serve  as  the 
homes  of  the  young  bees,  but  as  receptacles  for  their 
stores  of  honey.  Between  these  combs  there  are 
streets  wide  enough  for  two  bees  to  march,  and  there 
are  also  transverse  passages  or  streets. 


BEES.  lis 

The  working  bees  compose  the  most  numerous  part 
of  the  republic.  To  them  is  entrusted  the  defence 
of  the  city;  they  bring  in  the  honey  ;  build  the  cells, 
and  nourish  the  young.  They  do  all  the  offices  of 
the  hive ;  they  fight  against  all  intruding  strangers, 
and,  in  short,  attend  to  all  the  concerns  of  the 
State. 

Drones  are  distinguished  from  the  working  bees  by 
their  larger  size,  and  by  their  making  more  noise 
when  on  the  wing.  They  die  in  July,  and  are 
carried  out  of  the  hive  by  the  working  bees. 

The  bee  or  apis  is  a  genus  of  insects,  of  which 
the  mellificaj  or  common  bee,  is  the  most  valuable.  It 
is  very  remarkable  in  their  history,  that  they  will  not 
remain  domesticated  amowg  a  savage  people.  Sev- 
eral authors  mention  the  circumstance,  that  the  honey 
bee  and  the  common  house  fly  do  not,  and  will  not  re- 
side with  the  North  American  Indians. 

Bees  have  their  superior  officers,  whom  they  follow 
and  obey  in  all  cases.  When  one  of  these  dies,  if 
he  be  at  the  head  of  the  government,  all  working  ceas- 
es ;  the  bees  are  no  longer  on  the  wing  in  quest  of 
honey,  but  the  whole  city  appears  to  be  covered  with 
mourning  and  confusion.  The  bees  are  seen  through 
a  glass  hive,  some  standing  in  groups  as  if  discussing 
the  merits  of  the  deceased,  or  the  order  of  the  fu- 
neral procession ;  while  others,  like  guards,  are  walk- 
ing to  and  fro  before  the  passage.  The  funeral  pro- 
cession then  takes  place — the  dead  dignitary  is  car- 
10* 


J^  p^ 


■-::■/ 

^14  BEES; 

ried  in  pomp  out  of  the  city ;  after  which,  they  return 
more  briskly  to  elect  a  new  officer.  When  the  new 
officer  is  elected,  they  proceed  in  the  Turkish  plan^ 
to  get  rid  of  all  who  might  attempt  to  usurp  the  gov- 
ernment. Certain  bees  are  appointed  to  go  round 
and  strangle  all  the  rest  of  the  royal  blood  in  their 
cells.  These  curious  proceedings  have  been  observ- 
ed through  a  glass  hive.  It  has  been  observed  that 
the  bees  invariably  return  to  their  labors,  as  soon  a& 
their  new  officer  is  appointed. 

It  as  something  remarkable,  that  the  bee  has  two- 
stomachs,  in  one  of  which  is  digested  the  pure  honey, 
and  in  the  other  the  crude  wax. 

I  shall  now  speak  more  fully  of  the  government  of 
bees,  and  the  most  approved  manner  of  preserving 
them  after  robbing  them. 

•  An  aparj/  should  be  situated  in  a  pleasant  south  di* 
rection.  A  valley  is  preferable  to  a  hill,  as  the  bees 
on  their  return  to  the  hive  can  descend  much  more  ea- 
sily than  ascend  when  loaded  with  honey.  The  hives 
should  be  situated  where  there  are  no  bad  smells,  and 
near  a  stream  of  water  where  they  can  drink.  Wa- 
ter appears  to  be  a  necessary  ingredient  in  the  produc* 
tion  of  honey.  The  hives  should  be  placed  in  a  spot 
surrounded  by,  or  in  the  neighborhood  of  flowers  and 
shrubby  trees,  from  which  the  bees  may  obtain  ho- 
le^ey,  and  on  which  they  may  settle  when  they  swarm^ 


BEES.  115 


BEE  HIVES. 


Of  all  the  substances  of  which  hives  are  made,  and 
they  are  many,  straw  has  been  most  generally  prefer- 
red. They  have  been  preferred  for  three  reasons.  First^ 
hives  made  of  straw  are  cheaper  than  those  made  of 
wood,  glass,  or  any  other  material.  Second,  they 
are  warmer  in  cold  weather ;  and  Third,  they  are 
cooler  in  warm  weather,  than  any  other  hives. 

An  ingenious  French  gentleman  recommends  the 
floor  of  the  hive  to  be  made  of  plaster  of  Paris,  and 
the  hive  a  basket  work,  composed  of  straw  bound 
with  bands  made  of  the  internal  bark  of  the  lime- 
tree.  Over  this,  he  says,  should  be  smeared  a  full 
coating  made  of  one  part  ashes  and  two  parts  cow- 
duHg.  Cleanliness  appears  to  be  essential  to  these 
industrious  insects,  and  nothing  could  better  answer 
this  purpose  than  the  smooth  white  plaster  of  Paris. 
The  coating  of  the  hive  is  said  to  prevent  the  entrance 
of  noxious  insects,  while  the  smell  of  the  straw  is 
peculiaily  agreeable  to  the  bees.  The  cover  of  this 
hive  is  a  broad  board,  nearly  eighteen  inches  in  dia- 
meter. The  entrance  has  a  door,  which  may  be 
closed  in  winter,  to  keep  out  all  intruders.  At  the 
bottom  of  the  door  are  small  holes,  in  the  form  of  a 
half  moon,  just  large  enough  to  permit  two  bees  to 
enter  abreast.  Above  these  are  other  holes,  only 
large  enough  for  one  bee  to  enter.  The  straw  wall 
of  the  hive  should  be  an  inch,  and  the  cement  half  aa 


inch  in  thickness.  One  great  advantage  attending 
the  straw  hive,  is,  that  the  bees,  from  their  comfort- 
able state  during  winter,  swarm  much  earlier  in  the 
spring.  There  have  been  many  kinds  of  hives  in- 
vented, but  it  is  needless  to  enumerate  them.  The 
Egyptian  bee  hives  are  made  of  clay  and  coal  dust, 
blended  together,  and  formed  into  a  hollow  cylinder, 
from  six  to  ten  feet  high.  When  dried  in  the  sun,  in 
the  manner  of  clay  bricks,  this  hive  becomes  extreme- 
ly hard,  and  may  he  carried  from  place  to  place  with- 
out danger  of  breaking.  It  is  not  uncommon  in 
Egypt,  for  the  natives  to  carry  their  bees  into  differ- 
ent parts  of  thfe  country  to  procure  honey,  when  from 
the  overflowing  of  the  Nile,  they  can  get  none  at 
home.  They  start  in  October  and  return  in  Februa- 
ry, after  the  bees  have  gathered  the  sweets  of  flowers 
through  an  extent  of  hundreds  of  miles,  on  the  banks 
of  the  dark  and  turbid  Nile. 

Floating  bee  hives  are  not  uncommon  in  France. 
They  are  carried  in  boats  or  barges,  one  of  which 
will  carry  from  fifty  to  a  hundred  hives.  The  barge 
is  so  constructed,  that  the  bees  are  screened  from 
both  sun  and  rain.  They  float  along  the  river,  while 
from  the  flowers  on  the  banks  the  bees  gather  their 
delicious  sweets.  But  bees  are  not  only  transported 
from  place  to  place  by  water,  but  by  land  also. 
They  are  carried  in  a  cart,  which  contains  about  fifty 
hives. 

It  has  not  yet,  I  believe>  been  ascertained  how 


BEES.  117 

much  cold  bees  can  endure.  In  extreme  northern 
countries  they  are  found  in  trees.  Even  in  the  cold- 
est parts  of  Russia,  they  are  found  in  winter,  in  hol- 
low trees,  alive.  The  hives  in  Russia,  are  made  of 
bark.  In  Portugal,  bee  hives  are  constructed  of  the 
rind  of  the  cork  tree,  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder,  and 
a  little  more  than  two  feet  high,  by  twelve  or  fifteen 
inches  in  height.  The  inside  of  these  hives  is  divid- 
ed into  three  compartments,  and  the  top  is  covered 
with  an  earthen  pan  inverted. 

Bees,  as  well  as  the  silk  worm,  have  their  diseas- 
es ;  one  of  which  is  the  diarrhaea,  brought  on  by 
feeding  voraciously  on  certain  planets,  such  as  the  elm 
and  milk  thistle.  It  is  said  that  pomegranite  seed 
pounded,  united  with  honey  and  sweet  wine,  is  an  ef- 
fectual remedy.  Also  raisins  and  rosemary,  boiled 
in  wine.  When  hives  become  infested  with  insects, 
they  should  be  thoroughly  cleansed,  and  perfumed 
with  the  leaves  of  pomegranite. 

Many  winged  insects  are  very  annoying  to  bees, 
among  which  may  be  mentioned  hornets  and  butter- 
flies. The  best  plan  to  destroy  hornets,  is  to  place 
basins  of  water  round  the  hive,  into  which  the  hor- 
nets will  fly  to  drink,  and  will  be  drowned.  Lighted 
candles,-  it  is  said,  will  exterminate  the  butterflies. 

It  is  well  known  that  bees  often  go  to  war  with  one 
another ;  one  hive  battling  against  another.  To  pre- 
vent this.  Dr.  Darwin  says,  a  board  one  inch  thick 
Ijhould  be  laid  on  the  bee  bench,  and  so  fixed  with 


118  BEES. 

respect  to  the  hive,  that  the  assailing  bees  will  fight 
under  great  disadvantage.  This  is  an  interesting  sub- 
ject, and  I  vrould  refer  the  reader  to  larger  works  on 
the  subject. 


AN   ESSAY 


ON     THE 

CULTIVATION  01?   THE  MULBERRY, 

AND    THE 

REARING  OP   SILK    WORM^. 


There  can  now  be  but  little  doubt  that  the  silk  cul- 
ture is  destined,  at  no  distant  day,  to  become  one  of 
the  grand  resources,  and  silk  one  of  the  great  staples 
of  the  United  States.  A  little  antecedent  to  the 
American  Revolution,  the  people  of  the  Colonies 
went  heart  and  hand  into  the  cultivation  of  silk ;  and  at 
the  instigation  of  Dr.  Franklin,  a  silk  filature  was  es- 
tablished in  Philadelphia.  Large  trees  of  the  White 
Mulberry,  (Morus  Alba,)  are  still  standing  in  Connec- 
ticut and  other  New  England  States,  which  were 
then  used  for  the  propagation  of  that  interesting  in- 
sect, the  silk  worm. 

The  first  account,  however,  that  we  have  of  the 
cultivation  of  silk  in  this  country,  was  in  the  reign  of 
King  James,  who  was  a  great  patron  of  that  elegant 
employment ;  and  who  granted  a  certain  number  of 
acres  of  land  to  any  settler,  or  emigrant,  who  would 


120  CULTIVATION    OF 

plant  a  certain  number  of  Mulberry  trees.  It  is  well 
known  that  the  silk  worm  cannot  be  profitably  prop- 
agated in  England,  on  account  of  the  humidity  of  the 
climate;  and  it  was  for  this  reason  that  he  was  desi- 
rous of  introducing  the  culture  into  the  Colonies. 
England,  at  the  present  day,  manufactures  large 
quantities  of  the  beautiful  silk  fabrics  seen  in  our 
markets;  but  the  raw  material  is  not  produced  at 
home,  bfeing  brought  from  France  and  Italy. 

At  the  period  above  mentioned,  considerable  quan- 
tities of  silk  were  cultivated,  or  produced,  in  the  Uni- 
ted Colonies,  until  the  storm  of  war  arose,  and  burst 
like  a  tornado  on  the  devoted  head  of  America.  Dur- 
ing that  period,  in  which  the  torch  of  civil  war 
flashed  through  our  cities,  like  the  flaming  sword  of 
the  angel  at  the  gates  of  the  garden  of  Eden,  the 
.spirit  of  individual  enterprize  was  paralyzed;  all 
eyes  were  turned  to,  all  hands  united  in,  the  defence 
of  the  country ;  and  hence,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered 
at,  that  the  silk  culture  languished,  and  finally  expir- 
ed ;  for  the  few  who  w^ere  exempt  from  the  ranks, 
were  required  to  furnish  subsistence  for  the  army  and 
the  people. 

At  the  conclusi,on  of  the  long  war,  no  more  was 
thought  of  silk,  or  the  silk  worm,  with  the  exception 
of  the  inhabitants  of  a  few  places  in  the  New  England 
States,  who  have  continued  the  culture,  they  and  their 
posterity,  up  to  the  present  time.  They  labored  too 
under  great  disadvantage,  having  to  climb  trees  from 


THE    MULBERRY.  |gl 

forty  to  sixty  feet  in  height.  They  had  not  the  ad- 
vantages which  the  Chinese  Mulberry,  (Morus  Mul- 
ticaulis)  confers,  of  rapid  growth,  large  leaves,  easily 
gathered,  and  of  a  superior  quality. 

The  successful  and  universal  introduction  of  this 
species  of  manufacture,  as  well  as  culture,  will  save 
the  country  from  sixteen  to  twenty  millions  of  dol- 
lars annually  in  woven  fabrics,  to  say  nothing  of  the 
sewings,  refuse  silk,  &c.  It  will  give  employment 
to  thousands  of  children  and  aged  persons,  who 
would  otherwise  be  a  burthen  to  their  parents,  friends, 
or  the  public.  Advance  this  business,  and  the  inmates 
of  alms-houses,  particularly,  in  the  country,  would  so 
far  from  being  a  burthen  to  the  county,  pay  the  ex- 
penseg  of  the  establishment,  and  have  a  surplus. 
Another  great  advantage  would  accrue  from  the  uni- 
versal establishment  of  the  silk  culture.  In  many  of 
the  states,  and  particularly  in  Maryland  and  Dela- 
ware, there  is  a  vast  number  of  acres  of  land  worn 
out  and  turned  out,  which  might  be  turned  to  advan- 
tage, by  being  planted  with  the  Chinese  Mulberry 
trees.  Poor  land,  and  particularly  a  warm  sandy  soil, 
is  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  Mulberry ;  the  leaves  are 
more  relished  by  the  worm,  and  contain  more  nutri- 
ment, as  well  as  more  of  the  resin  which  forms  the 
silk,  than  leaves  produced  from  a  rich  soil ;  simply  be- 
cause the  latter  are  more  crude,  and  from  their  rapid 
growth  less  compact  in  their  structure.     The  leaves 

tan  a  poor  soil  of  course  are  much  smaller;  but  what 
11 


122  CULTIVATION   OP 

they  lack  in  quantity  is  recompensed  by  the  quality, 
and  though  more  tedious  to  gather,  it  will  require  a 
less  number  to  produce  a  given  quantum  of  silk.  The 
silk  will  also  be  stronger,  and  of  a  finer,  smoother 
texture. 

Our  Legislatures  are  beginning  to  awake  lo  the  in- 
terest of  the  people  and  the  nation  at  large,  and  with  a 
liberal  hand,  worthy  the  munificence  of  the  greatest 
Republic  in  the  world,  are  offering  a  bounty  or  pre- 
mium for  every  pound  of  silk  raised  or  reeled.  Con- 
fucius, the  great  philosopher  of  China,  acknowledged 
and  declared,  that  China  was  indebted  for  her  great 
wealth  and  splendor  to  the  tree  called  the  Morus 
Multicaulis,  or  Chinese  Mulberry.  Every  incentive 
should  be  used  to  stimulate  and  arouse  our  people  to 
this  grand  subject ;  for  I  religiously  believe,  that  the 
culture  of  silk  will  prove  a  fountain  of  wealth  to  the 
country.  There  is  no  country  under  Heaven  better 
calculated  for  the  business  than  the  United  States, 
particularly  the  Middle  and  Southern  states.  The 
climate  is-  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the  Mulberry, 
and  particularly  suited  to  the  nature  and  instinct  of 
the  worm.  There  is  every  inducement  that  can  pos- 
sibly be  offered,  for  the  people  of  the  Middle  States 
to  engage  in  this  healthful,  profit?ible,  pleasing  em- 
ployment; and  that  it  is  profitable,  no  one  will  pre- 
tend to  deny.  The  expenses  are  not  great.  A  co- 
coonery may  be  built  for,  comparatively,  a  small  , 
sum,  as  there  is  no  finish  about  it,  requiring  nothing 


THE    MULBERRY.  123 

but  a  bare  frame  covered  over  with  boards,  leaving 
spaces  for  windows  to  ventilate  the  room.  These 
windows  should  be  numerous ;  with  shutters  to  close 
in  damp  or  cold  weather.  On  the  inside  should  be 
shelves  put  up,  and  here  ends  the  items  of  the  cocoon- 
ery. 

The  Mulberry  (Morus  Multicaulis)  may  be  plant- 
ed, say  five  feet  high,  this  year;  and  be  fed  from  the 
next.  The  idea,  that  the  cultivator  must  wait  five  or 
six  years  is  erroneous;  all  that  is  necessary,  is  to 
have  a  sufficient  number  of  them.  Having  written 
thus  much  by  way  of  introduction,  I  shall  proceed  to 
the  Mulberry. 

THE    MULBERRY. 

It  is  piversally  conceded  by  all  authors  on  the  sub- 
ject, that  the  only  natural  food  for  the  silkworm  is  the 
Mulberry,  though  there  are  a  variety  of  substances 
on  which  the  worm  will  feed,  such  as  lettuce,  black- 
berry leaves,  rose  leaves,  &c.  Some  recommend  the 
culturist  to  sow  a  bed  of  Mulberry  seed,  as  the  first 
thing  to  be  done  towards  the  cultivation  of  silk ; 
but  I  prefer  planting  the  cuttings,  if  the  Chinese 
Mulberry  is  to  be  cultivated.  The  cuttings  will 
certainly  produce  a  tree  sooner  than  the  seed.  The 
seed  of  the  White  Mulberry,  however,  may  be 
sown. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  the  Mulberry,  spring- 
ing from  several  speqies.     The  best  varieties  of  tha 


124  CULTIVATION    OF 

tree  should  be  chosen,  and  the  soil  most  suited  to  its 
cultivation. 

The  varieties  of  the  Mulberry  spoken  of  are  as 
follows:  First,  the  White  Italian;  second,  the  Tar- 
tarean ;  third,  the  Shining  Leaved ;  fourth,  the  Dan- 
dolo  ;  and  fifth,  the  Chinese.  The  last  has  three  va- 
rieties, viz:  the  Morus  Cucullata,  the  Morus  Multi- 
caulis,  and  the  Perrottet  Mulberry. 

Among^  the  varieties  of  this  tree,  not  suitable  as 
food  for  the  silk  worm,  some  authors  enumerate  the 
Red  and  Black  Mulberry.  This  is  an  egregious  er- 
ror, for  I  have  fed  worms  both  on  the  red  and  the 
black ;  and  though  the  worms  did  not  grow  quite  so 
fast,  or  so  large,  yet  they  spun  very  compact  balls  ^ 
they  reeled  well,  and  proved  to  be  fine,  soft  and  glos- 
sy silk.  Those  worms  fed  on  the  White,  grew  some- 
what faster,  and  somewhat  larger  ;  yet  the  silk  pro- 
duced from  the  red  and  black  was  equal,  if  not  supe- 
rior. 

I  have  not  the  least  doubt  but  that  of  all  the  Mul- 
berry tribe,  the  Chinese  is  the  best;  both  as  a  food, 
and  in  the  facility  of  gathering  the  leaves.  Some  cul- 
turists  believe,  that  the  Chinese  Mulberry  cannot 
stand  the  severity  of  our  winters ;  but  I  am  of  the 
opinion  that  they  can,  after  the  first  winter ;  for  I  left 
many  out  the  last  winter,  and  not  a  single  one  died, 
though  the  experiment  was  tried  under  very  unfavor- 
able circumstances.  In  all  cases,  where  the  Chinese 
5»Iulberry  has  been  killed  by  the  severity  of  the  cli- 


THE  MULBERRY.  125 

mate,  fhe  indigenous  trees  have  also  fallen  victims, 
v^^hich  goes  to  prove  that  it  is  not  so  much  the 
delicacy  of  the  tree,  as  the  intense  severity  of  the 
weather. 

The  culturists  of  the  New  England  States,  recom- 
mend the  White  Italian  Mulberry  as  a  reserve,  incase 
the  Chinese  Mulberry  should  fail.  But  I  do  not  be- 
lieve it  will  fail  in  the  Middle  States,  and  would  re- 
commend its  cultivation  alone,  inasmuch  as  the  leaves 
are  sa  large,  and  it  is  so  easy  of  propagation.  That 
it  will  soon  become  acclimated  in  the  United  States, 
there  can  be  no  doubt;  for  its  tenacity  of  life  is  such, 
that  it  cannot  be  otherwise.  I  have  frequently 
broken  off  limbs  in  the  middle  of  summer,  the  ends 
of  which  being  covered  with  rich  mould,  they  have 
taken  root  and  grown. 

Besides  the  Chinese  Mulberry,  and  the  Morus  Al- 
ba, there  are  several  other  varieties,  which  are  richly 
worth  cultivatin'g;  especially  when  the  Chinese,  or 
Morus  Multicaulis,  cannot  be  had.  Among  them 
may  be  enumerated  the  Tartarean,  the  Shining  Leav- 
ed, and  the  Dondolo  Mulberry;  the  latter  of  which 
was  found  by  Count  Dondolo,  the  great  Italian  silfc 
culturist,  in  the  woods  of  Italy.  They  all  have  large 
leaves,  are  easily  propagated,  and  the  worms  are  ex- 
cessively fond  of  them.  Large  quantities  of  silk  may 
also  be  produced  from  them. 

There  h«^  ^^een  much  dispute  concerning  the  soil 
best  adiRv         o  the  Mulberry,  to  insure  a  proper 


126  CULTIVATION  aF 

growthk  Some  have  contended  that  the  Mulberry  re- 
quires a  dry,  warm  and  sandy  soil,  while  others  have 
strenuously  contended,  that  it  should  have  a  low,  wet 
and  rich  soil.  My  experience  has  taught  me  that  the 
Morus  Alba,  or  White  Mulberry,  flourishes  best  in  a 
dry,  sandy  soil ;  but  I  am  fully  convinced,  from  am- 
ple experiments,  that  the  Morus  Multicaulis  is  most 
favored  by  being  placed  in  a  damp,  rich  mould. 
Judge  Comstock  is  of  opinion,  that  any  soil  which 
will  produce  Indian  corn,  is  suitable  to  the  last  men- 
tioned tree.  This  is  no  doubt  true  ;  but  at  the  same 
time,  the  soil  above  mentioned,  I  have  found  from  ex- 
perience, to  be  the  very  best  soil  for  the  Chinese 
Mulberry.  It  is  very  true,  as  Judge  Comstock  ob- 
serves, that  in  Italy,  Piedmont  and  France,  where 
the  growing  of  silk  is  earried  to  a  great  pitch  of  per- 
fection, Indian  corn  is  found  growing  with  great  vig- 
or, and  is  used  for  bread  stuffs  by  the  generality  of 
people.  I  think,  if  my  memory  serves  me  rightly, 
that  it  is  in  Cambria,  in  Italy,  where  the  Black  Mul- 
berry (Morus  Nigra)  is  universally  used  as  food  for 
the  worm;  and  silk  from  the  leaves  of  that  tree  has 
been  declared  to  be  much  finer  and  stronger. 

PROPAGATION     OF    THE    MULBERRY. 

Culturists  enumerate  six  different  methods  of  prop- 
agating the  Mulberry.  The  first  is  by  the  seed ;  the 
second,  by  budding  or  inoculating ;  the  third,  by  graft- 
ing; the  fourth,  by  cuttings  ;  and  the  fifth,  and  sixth, 
by  layers  and  suckers. 


THE    MULBERRY.  127 

To  procure  the  seed,  the  fruit  should  be  put  into  a 
vessel  of  water,  bruised,  and  the  water  and  pulp 
should  be  carefully  poured  off.  The  seed  that  are 
good  will  sink  to  the  bottom,  while  those  which  are 
unripe  will  float,  and  should  be  poured  off  with  the^ 
pulp.  A  sheet,  or  other  large  cloth,  should  be  spread' 
under  the  tree,  and  the  tree  shaken  gently,  so  as  to 
detach  all  that  are  ripe,  without  disturbing  the  unripe 
berries.  The  berries  should  be  washed  as  soon  a&  , 
possible  after  being  gathered ;  for  if  kept  several 
days,  fermentation  takes  place,  and  destroys  the  vege- 
tating property.  But  when  it  becomes  necessary  to 
keep  the  seed,  they  should  be  spread  upon  a  board 
and  dried  in  the  shade ;  after  which,  they  should  be 
put  into  a  bottle  and  sealed  hermetrically. 

When  the  time  arrives  for  sowing,  and  theculturist 
is  under  the  necessity  of  buying  seed,  he  should  be 
careful  in  the  selection,  as  many  cheats  have  been 
practised  by  those  who  vend  foreign  seed.  I  would 
recommend  those  of  our  own  growth,  in  preference 
to  foreign  seed ;  as  the  silk  growers  and  manufactur- 
ers of  Europe,  look  with  a  jealous  eye  on  every  at- 
tempt at  the  silk  culture  in  America.  Several  kinds  - 
of  seed,  such  as  turnip,  have  been  sold  in  this  country 
fot  the  genuine  Morus  Multicaulis.  At  first,  this  con- 
duct would  appear  strange ;  but  when  we  recollect 
the  fact,  that  if  you  touch  a  man's  purse  you  touch 
his  soul,  we  need  not  be  astonished.  When  the  cot- 
ton manufacture  was  in  its  infancy,  swarms  of  spiea 


128  CULTIVATION  OF 

were  sent  over  to  discourage  and  decry  the  efforts 
then  being  made  to  establish  cotton  factories  of  our 
oim,''  Millions  were  thus  abstracted,  or  rather  detain^ 
ed,  from  the  pocket  of  John  Bull,  and  he  was  left  to 
chew  his  lip  with  mortification  and  disappointed  hope. 
The  cotton  manufacture  is  now  established  upon  a 
base  firm  as  adamant,  and  which  can  never  be  shaken 
by  the  arrows  of  envy,  or  the  shafts  of  malevolence 
and  jealousy. 

'The  proper  time  for  sowing  the  seed,  is  about  the 
first  of  May;  but  the  time  may  be  extended  to  the , 
beginning  of  September.     A  bed  should   be  made, 
large  or  small,  according  to  the  quantity  to  be  sown. 
Trenches  should  be   made  across  the  bed,  and  the 
seed  dropped  in  about  two  or  three  inches  apart;  for 
if  planted   too  closely  together,  they   will   smother 
each  other  and  come  to  naught.     When  winter  ap« 
proaches,  the  roots  of  the  young  trees  should  be  cov- 
ered with  straw;    for  there  alone   lies   the  danger. 
The  shoot  may  be  killed  to  the  ground,  but  it  will 
come  forth  again  the  next  spring,  and  will  grow  more 
vigorously  than  before.     Some  culturists  recommend 
the  cutting  off  all  the  stalks  of  the  first  year's  growth, 
and  suffer  them  to  come  forth  anew  the  next  season. 
I  am  inclined  to  think  this  a  very  good  plan,  so  far  as 
my  experience  and  judgment  extends.     When  this  ex- 
periment is  tried,  they  should  be  cut  off*  about  two  or 
three  inches  from  the  ground. 

In  dry  situations,  and  in  dry  weather,  the  young 


THE   MULBERRY.  12^9 

plants  should  be  watered  every  day  ;  but  it  should  al- 
ways be  done  before  sunrise,  or  after  sunset.  They 
should  also  be  carefully  hoed,  and  all  weeds  destroy- 
ed. 

TRANSPLANTING. 

When  the  trees  in  the  nursery  have  grown  too  thick 
to  thrive,  they  should  be  transplanted  to  a  lot  of 
ground  where  it  is  intended  they  shall  remain.  It  is 
unnecessary  to  describe  particularly  the  mode  of 
transplanting,  as  the  Mulberry  is  taken  up  and  set  in- 
to the  earth  again,  precisely  in  the  manner  of  other 
trees.  Some  recommend  shortening  the  tap  root; 
but  I  do  not  believe  in  the  doctrine,  for  if  any  part  of 
the  root  is  cut  away,  part  of  the  stalk  or  branches 
should  be  cut  away  also.  If  they  are  transplanted 
through  necessity  in  midsummer,  all  the  leaves  should 
be  stripped  off;  they  should  be  removed  in  a  wet 
season,  and  shaded  when  clear,  from  the  sun's  rays, 
until  the  roots  take  hold,  and  new  leaves  put  forth. 

The  trees  may  be  transplanted  when  one  or  two 
years  old,  and,  if  intended  for  standard  trees,  they 
should  be  placed  about  eight  feet  asunder,  one  from 
another.  There  will  then  be  left  sufficient  room  for 
the  admission  of  the  plough,  and  for  cultivating  the 
ground  in  potatoes.  Mr.  Cobb  recommends  planting 
them  at  the  distance  that  apple  trees  are  planted  from 
one  another. 

Yhe  young  trees  should  be  cultivated  with  greaik 


130  CULTIVATION  OF 

care  for  several  years,  and  from  the  first  year,  should 
be  annually  pruned,  Mr.  Goodrich,  President  of  the 
Hartford  County  Silk  Society,  writing  upon  this  sub- 
ject, says — , 

"  I  would  begin  to  prune  the  trees  the  first  year, 
observing  to  cut  off  all  sprouts  which  grow  near  the 
ground  ;  no  leaves  ought  to  be  suffered  to  grow  near- 
er than  two  or  three  feet  to  the  ground.  The  earlier 
you  begin  to  prune,  the  easier  it  will  be  to  form  good 
trees,  and  the  more  rapidly  they  will  grow. 

"  The  second  year  I  would  begin  to  make  silk  of 
the  twigs  which  are  trimmed  off.  If  the  trees  have 
been  properly  cultivated  from  the  beginning,  I  think 
you  may  make  silk  enough  the  second  year  to  pay 
all  the  expense  of  making  the  silk,  and  of  cultivating 
the  trees  that  year.  The  principal  object,  however, 
ought  to  be,  not  to  make  silk  the  second  year,  but  to 
cultivate  the  trees  in  the  most  judicious  manner." 

The  same  author  recommends  heading  down  trees, 
from  year  to  year,  to  avoid  the  necessity  of  climbing 
large  trees,  as  at  Mansfield,  Connecticut,  some  of 
which  are  from  thirty  to  forty  feet  high.     He  says — 

"  I  propose  to  save  this  labor  in  a  great  measure, 
by  trimming  and  heading  down  the  trees  from  year  to 
year,  so  that  they  shall  not  grow  more  than  six  or 
eight  feet  high,  and  in  such  a  manner  that  the  leaves 
may  always  be  gathered  by  a  person  standing  on  the 
ground .  In  this  manner  mulberry  leaves  are  gathered 
in  Persia,  and  in  the  vicinity  of  Constantinople." 


THE  MULBLRRY.  131 

Cultivating  the  White  Mulberry  in  hedges,  has 
been  highly  recommended  by  some ;  but  I  am  far 
from  being  in  favor  of  them,  except  they  are  intended 
merely  as  a  fence.  The  trees,  or  rather  bushes,  in 
hedges,  are  generally  very  crowded  ;  and,  conse- 
quently, bear  very  small  leaves,  which  are  tedious  to 
gather ;  and  another  inconvenience  is,  that  those  trees 
are  apt  to  become  thorny. 

There  are  two  methods  of  making  hedges;  the 
first,  by  sowing  the  seed  ;  and  the  second,  by  trans- 
planting the  trees  as  before  stated.  Judge  Comstock 
thinks  the  hedge  the  best  method  of  cultivating  the 
Mulberry.  I  shall  quote  a  passage  from  his  work  on 
the  subject  of  transplanting. 

"  To  make  a  hedge,"  says  the  Judge,  "by  trans- 
planting from  the  nursery,  take  plants  one  or  two 
years  old,  and  set  them  at  thfe  distance  of  eighteen 
inches  apart,  or,  if  it  is  intended  to  make  a  thickset 
hedge,  at  the  distance  of  one  foot.  Cut  off  the  tops 
at  four  or  six  inches  from  the  ground,  leaving  two 
buds  opposite  each  other,  and  removing  all  the  rest. 
This  causes  the  stock  to  have  two  vigorous  branches 
the  first  year.  The  next  spring,  cut  one  of  these  two 
branches  on  the  same  side,  a-t  ^oout  twelve  inches 
from  the  ground,  in  such  manner  that  each  plant  may 
have  a  long  one  and  a  short  one.  Cut  horizontally  on 
the  same  side,  also,  one  after  another,  all  the  branches, 
and  fasten  them  with  cords  or  writhes,  so  that  they 
may  form  a  line  parallel  with  the  earth,  and  leave  (he 


132  CULTIVx\TION  OF 

entire  branches  untouched.  At  the  commencement  of 
the  third  year,  the  plants  will  have  branches  to  form 
a  hedge. 

"  The  height,  form,  &c.  of  a  hedge,  may  be  regu- 
lated according  to  the  taste  of  the  cultivator,  by  cut- 
ting off  the  branches,  when  covered  with  leaves,  and 
feeding  the  silkworm  upon  them.  Some  cultivators 
are  permitting  their  standard  trees  to  grow  up  out  of 
their  hedges  at  the  distance  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  from 
each  other.  This  is  doubtless  an  improvement,  as  by 
cutting  away  the  hedge,  an  orchard  of  standard  trees 
would  be  left,  should  it  ever  be  found  desirable  so  to 
do.  Rails  might  also  be  inserted  into  the  standards, 
and  a  good  fence  easily  made." 

CUTTINGS,   LAYERS,  &C. 

Having  treated  upon'seed,  as  one  of  the  modes  of 
cultivating,  or  rather  of  propagating  the  Mulberry,  I 
shall  now  proceed  to  speak  of  the  other  methods, 
without,  however,  observing  any  particular  order, 
taking  them  as  they  occur  to  my  mind. 

In  propagating  the  Chinese  Mulberry,  I  consider 
the  cutting  as  the  best  and  the  surest  means  of  ob- 
taining the  genuine*  Morus  Multicaulis.  This  tree^  \ 
it  is  said,  cannot  be  propagated  from  the  seed  without 
producing  hybrid  varieties  ;  as  the  pollen  of  the  na- 
tive Mulberry,  will  mix  with  its  own  when  in  blos- 
som, and  hence  a  mongrel  class  is  produced. 

I  have  some  experience  in  planting  the  cutting,  and 


THE  MULBERRV.  133 

have  never  failed  in  producing  large  and  thrifty  trees ; 
many  of  which  grew  from  seven  to  eight  feet  high 
the  first  season,  and  put  forth  limbs  of  considerable 
size.  These  limbs  I  cut  off  in  the  ensuing  spring,  or 
rather  in  February ;  cut  them  into  pieces,  each  piece 
having  on  it  two  buds,  all  of  which  were  placed  in  a 
box,  covered  with  dirt,  and  placed  in  the  cellar  until 
the  time  for  planting,  which,  in  the  Middle  States,  is 
in  April  or  May.  Some  cultivators  say  that  they 
should  be  cut  off  in  the  fall,  and  kept  in  sand  until 
Spring.  I  have  tried  this  experiment,  and  nearly  all 
of  them  rotted.  They  should  be  taken  off  the  tree 
in  the  Spring,  for  then  it  is  seldom  that  any  of  them 
will  rot.     They  also  grow  more  vigorously. 

There  is  another  prevalent  error  among  cultiva- 
tors, of  planting  the  cutting  perpendicularly  in  the 
earth,  and  having  an  idea  that  one  bud  forms  the  roots 
and  the  other  the  trunk.  This  is  a  most  egregious 
mistake.  Each  bud  has  within  it  the  elements  of  a 
tree,  in  the  same  manner  that  the  seed  has,  and  so  far 
from  the  bud  producing  the  roots,  the  bud  sometimes 
rots  while  the  roots  are  shooting  out  vigorously.  The 
roots  are  thrown  out  below,  and  have  no  connection 
with  the  bud,  as  may  be  seen  by  examining  one  when 
growing. 

As  every  bud  produces  a  tree,  the  cutting  should  be 

planted  horizontally,  and  after  the  ends  have  been 

covered  with  wax  of  some  kind  to  keep  out  moisture, 

they  should  be  covered  about  two  or  three  inches 
12 


134  CITLTIVATION  OP 

deep,  and  in  rows  about  eighteen  itiches  or  two  feet^ 
one  from  another  each  way.  They  should  always 
have  air  and  light  when  they  begin  to  rise  above  the 
earth.  Some  say  a  shady  location  is  preferable  ;  but 
it  matters  not  so  they  are  well  watered  when  the  sea- 
son is  dry.  I  would  prefer  propagating  the  White 
Mulberry  from  the  seed. 

The  second  method  of  propagation  which  I  shall 
treat  of,  is  by  layers ;  and  it  is  without  doubt  the  ea- 
siest, but  I  have  one  objection  to  its  being  the  best, 
which  is,  that  the  buds  being  so  close  to  each  other, 
the  trees  spring  up  in  clusters  ;  and  those  which  are 
most  forward,  soon  overshadow  and  destroy  the 
growth  of  the  others.  I  have  tried  this  method  to 
my  satisfaction,  and  what  is  here  related  will  be  found 
true  by  others. 

^The  method  of  making  layers,  is  by  bending  down 
the  branches  of  a  tree  and  fastening  them  to  the  earth 
by  wooden  prongs  stuck  down;  or  by  planting  the 
tree  in  a  slanting  direction,  and  covering  the  whole 
tree,  save  the  ends  of  the  branches,  to  the  depth  of 
three  or  four  inches  with  rich  mould.  Many  trees 
are  said  to  have  been  raised  by  this  method  from  one 
in  a  season.  Mr.  Kenrick  states  that  a  gentleman  of 
New  England  produced  from  two  trees,  in  one  season, 
two  hundred  and  two,  besides  the  two  original  trees. 
This,  however,  was  a  rare  instance,  and  can  seldom 
be  accomplished. 

After  the  growth  of  one  season,  the  trees  are 


THE  MULBERRY.  1S5 

separated  by  the  knife,  and  transplanted  into  situations 
where  they  will  have  sufficient  room  to  grow. 

Grafting  is  the  third  means  of  propagating  the 
Mulberry,  and  many  cultivators  are  of  opinion,  that 
the  Morus  Multicaulis,  grafted  on  the  stalk  of  the 
White  Mulberry  would  stand  our  winters  much 
better. 

The  shoulder  grafting  is,  to  my  judgment,  the  best 
mode.  It  Js  performed  like  splicing  two  pieces  of 
timber  together,  each  piece  cut  half  through  from  the 
end  down  to  a  shoulder,  about  an  inch  or  two  in 
length ;  then  lashed  together  with  a  soft  bandage,  and 
covered  with  wax.  The  operator  should  be  veiy 
careful  to  adjust  the  two  pieces,  so  that  theVood  and 
bark  of  each  may  come  together  and  admit  the  ascent 
of  the  sap. 

In  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  particularly  in  Italy 
and  France,  grafting  is  practised  on  all,  whether 
standard,  hedge  or  dwarf  trees.  They  entertain  a 
mistaken  idea  that  grafted  trees  bear  more  leaves. 

The  fourth  species  of  propagation  is  denominated 
budding,  or  inoculating.  It  is  much  more  easily  per- 
formed than  grafting,  and  by  many  is  considered  far 
better.  The  manner  of  performing  this  operation,  is 
by  taking  a  bud  from  a  scion  of  the  kind  you  desire, 
and  putting  it  into  another  tree.  An  incision  should 
be  made  across  the  scion  about  an  inch  above  the  bud, 
into  the  heart ;  the  knife  then  turned  and  run  down 
an  inch  below  the  bud.     This  should  be  taken  ofTj 


136  CULTIVATION   OF 

and  the  woody  part  dexterously  cut  out  from  the  bark, 
taking  care  not  to  destroy  the  eye  of  the  bud,  as  it  is 
then  good  for  nothing.  This  being  absolutely  neces- 
sary, it  is  easy  to  tell  when  the  eye  of  the  bud  is  de- 
stroyed, as^  hole  will  be  discovered. 

The  next  thing  to  be  done,  is  to  prepare  the  stock 
or  limb  to  receive  the  bud.  This  is  done  by  making 
an  incision  transversely,  and  then  downwards,  about 
an  inch  or  two  long,  in  the  form  of  a  T.  The  bark 
is  now  carefully  pealed  up  with  a  thia  blade  of  bone 
or  ivory,  taking  care  not  to  wound  the  cambium. 
The  bud,  or  rather  the  bark,  to  which  the  bud  is  at- 
tached, is  now  to  be  slipped  into  the  opening  made  in 
the  trunk  or  limb  of  the  tree,  and  nicely  wrapped 
with  soft  bandages,  observing  to  leave  the  bud  out. 
A  little  wax  over  this  will  complete  the  process. 

The  fifth  mode  of  propagation  is  by  suckers,  which 
are  shoots  which  start  up  from  the  roots.  In  the 
Spring  they  should  be  taken  up  with  some  roots  to 
them  and  planted  out  in  a  favorable  situation.  Ne- 
glect not  to  water  them. 

THE   CHINESE   MULBERRY. 

Moras  Multicaulis. 
Morus   Cucullata. 
Perrottet  Mulberry. 

Universal  opinion  appears  to  concede  the  palm  toi 
this  Mulberry.    It  seems  to  combiue  in  itself  all  the 


THE  MULBERRY.  137 

excellencies  of  all  the  species ;  the  principal  of  which 
are  its  rapid  growth,  its  easy  cultivation,  and  large 
leaves,  by  which  so  much  time  and  labor  are  saved. 

In  consequence  of  the  great  quantity  of  resin  in  the 
leaves,  more  silk  is  made  than  from  a  given  quantity 
of  leaves  from  any  other  Mulberry. 

The  Morus  Multicaulis  was  brought  from  Manilla, 
in  1821,  whither  it  had  been  carried  by  the  Chinese 
as  a  tree  of  ornament  and  usefulness.  M.  Perrottet, 
who  obtained  these  trees,  carried  only  two  to  France, 
and  from  them  have  sprung  the  millions  that  are  in 
Europe  and  America.  I  think,  if  my  memory  serves 
me,  that  their  introduction  into* the  United  States 
was  between  the  years  1830  and  1833. 

It  is  a  tree  of  extremely  rapid  growth,  attaining  fre- 
quently in  a  season,  a  height  varying  from  five  to  ten 
feet.  It  is  of  a  spongy  texture,  succulent,  and  of 
course  very  susceptible  of  the  influence  of  cold  and 
frost.  Many  are  still  in  doubt  whether  it  will  endure 
our  climate  ;  but  for  myself,  I  have  not  a  doubt  but 
that  it  will  soon  become  acclimated.  Many  distin- 
guished culturists  in  the  United  States,  have  given  us 
their  experiments  upon  the  best  modes  of  treatment, 
among  whom  are  Mr.  Kesrick,  Dr.  Stebbins,  and  Mr. 
Davenport,  who  are  fully  acquainted  with  all  its  pe- 
culiarities, as  well  as  its  excellencies.  These  gen- 
tlemen recommend  the  following  course  of  treat- 
ment. 

A  poor  soil  must  be  chosen  for  the  Morus  MultU 
12* 


138  CtTLTIVATIOK  OF 

caulis,  so  that  the  cultivator  may  have  it  in  his  power 
to  make  the  tree  grow  rapidly  or  slowly  as  he  pleases. 
In  the  early  part  of  the  season,  by  the  aid  of  manure, 
its  growth  must  be  forced  until  the  last  of  July,  or 
the  first  of  August,  when  every  stimulus  mustbewith- 
draw^n,  so  as  almost  entirely  to  stop  its  growth.  By 
this  means,  the  succulent  limbs  have  time  to  harden 
before  they  are  nipped  by  the  autumnal  frosts. 

From  my  experience  in  cultivating  the  Morus  Mul- 
ticaulis  in  one  of  the  Middle  States,  this  course  ap- 
pears to  me  entirely  unnecessary,  for  I  have  invaria- 
bly observed  that  the  trees  grow  very  little  after  the 
beginning  of  August. 

The  Chinese  Mulberry,  as  observed  before,  is  easi- 
ly propagated  by  any  of  the  methods  described ;  but 
I  prefer  the  cutting  to  any  other.  The  cutting  may 
be  calculated  upon  with  certainty,  as  it  puts  forth  its 
roots  readily,  and  grows  with  great  luxuriance.  Cul- 
tivators appear  to  be  at  variance,  with  respect  to 
propagating  this  tree  from  the  seed  ;  some  declaring 
that  the  seed  will  produce  the  genuine  tree,  w^hile  oth- 
ers contend  that  they  will  not.  As  observed  before,  it 
no  doubt  arises  from  the  mixing  of  the  pollen  of  two 
varieties,  thus  producing  a  hybrid  variety,  that  the 
dispute  has  sprung. 

The  Chinese  Mulberry  is  denominated  Morus 
Multicaulis,  from  the  many  stalks  which  annually 
shoot  up  from  the  roots,  bearing  immense  quantities  of 
foliage.     In  speaking  oi  the  delicacy,  and  the  liability 


T«E   MULBERRY.  IS9 

of  this  tree  to  be  killed  by  the  frosts  of  winter, 
Judge  Comstock  observes — 

"  We  have  little  doubt  of  the  ultimate  acclimation 
of  the  Chinese  Mulberry  in  this  country,  and  consid- 
er it  but  of  little  consequence  w^hether  they  can  or 
cannot  be  propagated  from  the  seed ;  but  should  it 
finally  be  compelled  to  yield  to  the  severity  of  our 
climate^  "we  should  still  consider  it  the  most  valuable 
variety  of  the  Mulberry  for  cultivation  in  tliis  coun- 
try. It  is  the  opinion  of  the  most  skilful  and  experi- 
enced cultivators  and  culturists,  that  should  the  shoots 
of  the  Chinese  Mulberry  be  destroyed  by  the  frosts 
of  every  winter,  so  that  nothing  could  be  gathered 
from  the  plants  but  the  foliage  on  the  annual  shoots, 
they  would  be  far  preferable  to  the  White  Mulberry, 
as  more  silk  could  be  made  from  them,  than  from  trees 
of  the  White  eight  and  ten  years  old." 

It  has  been  declared  by  many,  that  worms  fed  on 
the  leaves  of  theMorus  Multicaulis  spin  much  larger 
cocoons,  and  that  the  silk  is  much  stronger ;  seldom 
breaking  in  reeling.  I  have  never  had  a  fair  oppor- 
tunity to  test  the  truth  of  this  oft-repeated  assertion, 
yet  I  am  inclined  not  to  doubt  it,  knowing  that  worms 
fed  on 'the  White  Mulberry  produce  larger  cocoons 
than  those  fed  on  the  black. 

About  the  last  of  October,  all  trees  of  one  season's 
growth  should  be  taken  up,  being  very  particular  not 
to  break  the  roots,  and  also  to  preserve  as  many  of 
the  small  fibres  as  possible ;  for  they  are  the  mouths 


140  THE  SILK  WORM. 

through  which  all  aliment  is  taken  into  the  stomach 
or  roots.  They  should  never  be  drawn  up  forcibly 
from  the  earth,  as  this  detaches  the  ends  of  the  roots 
and  the  fibres  ;  but  they  should  be  dug  with  a  small 
blunt  hoe  and  with  the  fingers. 

When  out  of  the  earth,  the  next  process  is  to  place 
the  roots  in  boxes,  and  pack  dirt  around  them,  so  that 
no  spaces  are  left.  Place  the  boxes  in  the  cellar,  and 
examine  them  once  or  twice  in  the  winter,  and  moist- 
en rthe  roots  if  dry. 


OF   THE  SILK  WORM. 

The  silk-worm  belongs  to  agreat  family  of  insects, 
genus  phalena ;  sub  genus  bombyx ;  species^  mori, 
from  Morus  the  Mulberry.  It  was  first  found  in  the 
woods  of  China,  which  consist  principally  of  the 
Mulberry,  and  the  intelligence  reaching  the  ears  of 
Her  Royal  Highness,  Shi-ling-Shi,  queen  of  China 
and  sister  to  the  moon,  she  ordered  some  of  the  won- 
derful worms  to  be  brought  into  the  palace,  where  she 
reared  them  with  her  own  hands,  and  studied  their 
nature,  habits,  and  diseases.  The  Royal  maids,  see- 
ing their  mistress  so  pleasantly  and  amusingly  enga- 
ged, soon  followed  her  example,  and  the  worm  from  a 
tiny  insect,  grew  by  the  aid  of  cultivation,  to  the 
length  of  three  or  more  inches. 


THE  SILK  WOHrM.  141 

To  imitate  royalty,  the  people  soon  became  enga- 
ged in  rearing  the  worm,  and  experimenting  upon  the 
cocoon,  until  their  amusement  resulted  in  the  art  of 
reeling  silk,  and  afterwards  of  weaving  it.  Beauti- 
ful crimson  fabrics  were  produced,  which  astonished 
the  world ;  for  so  secret  were  they  in  the  matter,  that 
in  the  time  of  the  Roman  Empire,  under  the  Caesars, 
the  people  of  Europe  knew  not  from  what,  or  in  what 
manner,  silk  was  procured  ;  some  supposing  that  it 
was  the  bark  of  a  tree,  others  that  it  was  the  entrails 
of  an  insect,  &c. 

During  many  centuries,  the  silks  of  China  sold  at 
an  immense  price.  None  but  the  vastly  rich  could 
afford  to  buy  them ;  for  it  is  recorded  of  one  of  the 
Roman  Emperors,  that  he  refused  his  queen  a  rich 
silk  dress  on  account  of  the  high  price,  it  being  worth 
its  weight  in  gold.  Even  down  to  a  later  period,  silk 
fabrics  were  extremly  costly.  History  informs  us 
that  one  of  the  kings  of  England  borrowed  of  the 
Earl  of  Mar  a  pair  of  silk  hose,  giving  as  an  ex- 
cuse, these  words  :  "  Surely  ye  would  not  that  your 
king  should  appear  as  a  scrub  before  strangers!" 
The  Royal  personage  was  to  attend  a  party. 

For  ages  China  enjoyed  the  exclusive  privilege 
of  cultivating  and  manufacturing  silk.  But  the  day 
of  competition  came,  and  her  monopoly  was  at  an 
end.  Two  monks,  travelling  on  a  pilgrimage  from 
Constantinople,  wandered  into  China;  where  they 
were  well  received  on  account  of  their  religious  oh?- 


142  THE   SILK  WORM, 

racter.  They  took  advantage  of  their  privilege,  and 
though  to  carry  off  any  of  the  silk-worm's  eggs  they 
knew  was  death,  if  detected,  one  of  them  concealed 
some  of  the  eggs  in  the  hollow  head  of  his  cane. 
Though  searched,  he  escaped  with  them,  and  carried 
them  safely  to  Constantinople.  The  king  was  pleas- 
ed at  the  recital  of  the  process  of  rearing  the  worm : 
but,  unfortunately,  the  travellers  had  forgotten  to  as- 
certain upon  what  kind  of  leaves  they  were  fed ; 
whereupon  the  king  offered  him  a  large  reward  to  go 
back  to  China  and  discover  what  tree  the  leaves  were 
taken  from,  on  which  the  worms  were  fed.  They 
went,  and  returned  with  intelligence  that  it  was  the 
Mulberry. 

Thus  was  the  silk  worm,  and  the  silk  culture,  in- 
troduced into  eastern  Europe ;  and  from  that  thimble 
full  of  eggs  have  sprung  the  millions,  and  billions,  and 
trillions  of  worms,  which  since  have  toiled  to  adorn ' 
the  angel  form  of  beauty.  When  we  look  at  the  la- 
bors of  a  single  worm,  how  insignificant  it  appears; 
yet  how  magnificent  is  the  product  of  congregated 
millions !  Who,  that  did  not  know,  would  suppose 
for  a  moment,  that  all  the  silk  in  those  fabrics  which 
grace  the  limbs  of  female  loveliness,  and  which  are 
used  for  a  thousand  other  purposes,  sprung  from  the 
labors  of  a  tiny  worm  ? 

The  limits  of  this  work  will  not  admit  of  my  go- 
ing into  detail,  and  giving  a  history  of  the  march  of 
the  silk  culture  over  Europe.    Suffice  it  to  say,  that 


tms.  siLic  WORM.  14S 

it  lingered  for  a  long  time  on  the  confines  of  Eastern 
Europe;  in  Greece  and  the  Grecian  Isles;  then 
spread  into  Italy,  France,  Spain,  &c.  Italy  and 
France  have  excelled  all  the  countries  of  Europe  in 
the  rearing  the  worm,  and  in  the  beauty  of  silk  fa- 
brics. 

REARING    THE    WORM. 

When  the  silk-worm  first  comes  forth  from  the  egg, 
it  is  a  small  black  insect  resembling  the  tiny  black 
ant.  Leaves  being  placed  near,  they  will  crawl  up- 
on them  and  commence  eating,  as  fast  as  they  hatch. 
They  should  be  fed  three  or  four  times  a  day,  with 
fresh  leaves,  cut  up  in  small  pieces,  for  the  first  five 
days,  and  then  oftener  as  they  grow  larger. 

At  the  end  of  five  days  the  first  moulting,  or  shed- 
ding of  the  skin  takes  place,  when  the  worm  is  a  quar- 
ter of  an  inch  in  length.  It  now  droops  its  head, 
ceases  to  eat,  and  appears  extremely  sick.  In  twen- 
ty-four or  thirty-six  hours  it  slips- out  of  its  skin,  and 
again  commences  eating.  On  the  eiglith  day  of  its 
age,  the  second  moulting  takes  place,  when  it  is  again 
sick  and  ceases  to  eat.  It  is  now  half  an  inch  in 
.  length,  and  begins  to  assume  a  lighter  colour.  The 
third  moulting  takes  place  on  the  thirteenth  or  four- 
teenth day,  and  the  fourth  on  the  twenty-second  or 
twenty-third.  The  worm  now  eats  ravenously,  and 
is  two  inches  in  length.  In  ten  days  more  it  acquires 
its  full  length,  ceases  to  eat,  and  goes  wandering 


144  THE    SILK   WORM. 

*bout,  with  head  erect,  and  leaving  fibres  of  silk  ott 
every  thing  it  touches.  Its  back  is  of  a  yellow  co^ 
lor,  and  the  worm  is  ready  to  spin.  The  next  thing  to 
be  done,  is  to  bring  in  some  oak  or  hickory  branches, 
which  have  been  previously  cut,  and  withered  in  the 
sun,  and  place  them  back  of  the  shelves,  or  over  the 
worms.  They  will  soon  climb,  and,  after  finding  suit- 
able places,  will  commence  spinning  their  cocoons. 
Each  worm  will  require  four  or  five  days  to  com- 
plete its  cocoon.  Five  or  six  days  after  the  last 
worm  has  commenced  spinning,  the  cocoons  may  be 
gathered  from  the  bushes.  A  keen  sighted  person  is 
required  to  gather  the  cocoons,  or  some  will  be  over*- 
looked,  which  are  spun  in  leaves  curled  up.  The 
largest  and  most  firm  cocoons  should  be  laid  aside 
for  seed,  and  the  others  should  be  put  into  shallow 
baskets  and  placed  in  ovens  to  bake,  taking  care  not 
to  scorch  the  silk.  When  the  chrysalis  or  worm  in 
the  cocoon  is  dead,  the  cocoons  should  be  taken  out 
and  spread  in  the  shade  to  dry,  otherwise  the  va- 
por which  arises  from  the  dead  chrysalis  will  ruin  the 
silk. 

The  cocoons  saved  for  seed  should  be  placed  in  an 
airy  room,  where  they  should  remain  untouched.  In 
about  twelve  to  fourteen  days,  according  to  the  state 
of  the  weather,  the  fly  will  come  forth  from  the  co- 
coon. This  is  effected  by  throwing  out  a  fluid, 
which  dissolves  the  gum  of  the  silk,  and  the  legs  of 
the  fly  serve  to  part  the  strands  of  silk  until  the  head 


THE   SlLIt   WORM.  145 

projects.  So  soon  as  the  flies  come  forth  the  room 
should  be  darkened,  and  the  flies  placed  upon  news- 
papers spread  upon  a  table.  After  copulation,  the 
female  commences  laying  her  eggs,  which  vary  in 
number  from  two  to  five  hundred.  All  those  eggs 
which  do  not  change  their  color  within  a  few  hours 
after  being  laid  are  unimpregnated,  and  consequently 
are  good  for  nothing. 

I  have  given  a  mere  outline  of  the  silk-worm, 
which  will  be  filled  up  in  future  pages.  When  we 
contemplate  this  interesting  insect  in  all  its  operations 
and  transformations,  the  mind  is  irresistibly  led  up  to 
that  sublime  Being,  who  has  placed  before  us  in  the 
transformation  of  the  worm,  a  complete  picture  of 
nian's  redemption.  Like  man  it  toils  through  life  and 
plays  the  glutton ;  but  more  wise  than  maiiP,  it  prepares 
for  the  tomb;  or,  in  other  words,  it  spins  its  own 
tomb,  the  cocoon.  In  twelve  or  fourteen  days  it 
bursts  the  barrier  of  the  grave,  and  comes  forth 
robed  in  white,  a  beautiful  butterfly.  It  labors  and 
toils  no  more,  but  all  is  pleasure,  all  is  enjoyment. 
The  very  instruments  or  organs  with  which  it  labor- 
ed are  gone,  and  a  new  form  is  given  to  enjoy  its  se- 
cond existence.  But  in  a  few  days  this  beautiful 
creature  dies,  and  here  ends  the  simile ;  for  man  shall 
live  immortal,  "  unhurt  by  the  wi^ck  of  matter  and 
the  crush  of  world^' 
13 


146  THE   SILK  WORM. 

DISEASES   OF    THE   SILK    WORM. 

The  silk-worm  is  perhaps  the  most  delicate  insect 
in  existence.  The  least  injury,  wet  leaves,  or  tobac- 
co smoke,  is  fatal  to  them.  The  rest  of  the  caterpil- 
lar tribes,  which  are  a  mere  pest  to  mankind,  have  a 
great  tenacity  of  life ;  for  I  have  by  way  of  experi- 
ment, cut  the  common  catterpiliar  suddenly  in  two 
with  a  sharp  knife,  and  one-half  crawled  with  the  same 
facility  that  the  whole  body  did.  I  have  also  placed 
them  in  close  confinement,  and  smoked  them  with  se- 
gar  smoke  during  twenty  minutes,  without  apparently 
the  least  effect. 

The  silkworm  is  also  the  most  inoffensive  creature 
in  the  world,  Nature  having  made  it  entirely  for 
usefulness,  without  giving  it  any  means  for  self-de- 
fence. Yet  almost  every  creature  in  the  creation  ap- 
pears to  be  an  enemy  to  it.  Among  its  enemies  may 
be  enumerated  the  cat,  rat,  mouse,  cockroach,  ant, 
spider,  and  many  smaller  insects,  as  bird  lice.  A  gen- 
tleman in  Pennsylvania  had  a  whole  crop  of  worms 
destroyed  by  lice,  which  fell  from  pigeons'  nests 
above  them.  I  had  a  very  large  silk-w^orm,  which 
commenced  spinning  late  in  the  evening,  and  to  my 
great  astonishment  next  morning,  a  spider  had  wound 
its  threads  around  the  worm  and  hoisted  it  up  an  inch 
or  two  above  its  cocoon.  I  examined  it,  and  found  it 
dead.  Mice  are  extremely  fond  of  the  eggs,  as  well 
as  the  worms.    I  have  known  a  whole  crop  of  worms 


THE   SILK  WORM.  147 

destroyed  by  mice.  Wishing  to  cross  the  breed  of 
^  vo  species  of  the  silk- worm,  I  placed  two  flies  on  a 
able  near  a  window,  which  opened  on  a  shed.  In  a 
few  hours  I  returned  and  found  them  literally  eaten 
up  by  large  black  ants.  From  the  delicate  texture  of 
the  worm,  it  must  be  a  sweet  morsel  to  those  rav- 
enous animals  and  insects  which  live  by  plunder. 

The  silk-worm  is  subject  to  six  diseases,  which 
frequently  prove  fatal  to  thousands  of  their  race. 
The  first  disease  I  shall  treat  of  is  the  Lusette. 

They  are  generally  attacked  in  the  fifth  age  by 
this  disease.  It  generally  arises  from  want  of  atten- 
tion, and  a  scanty  supply  of  proper  food.  When  af- 
fected by  it,  the  body  of  the  worm  has  a  shining  ap- 
pearance, and  the  head  becomes  much  enlarged.  The 
stomach  on  dissection  is  found  full  of  a  transparent 
fluid.  The  proper  remedy  is  to  seperate  the  infected 
from  the  sound  worms,  and  give  them  a  full  supply  of 
fresh  leaves.  They  should,  however,  not  be  fed 
to  the  full  immediately,  but  the  leaves  given  in 
small  parcels  at  first;  otherwise,  a  disease  pre- 
cisely the  reverse  will  be  the  consequence. 

The  next  disease  is  denominated  the  GraBseriey 
the  reverse  of  the  former.  This  disease  is  brought 
on  by  feeding  the  worms  too  liberally  on  young  and 
tender  leaves.  The  period  at  which  they  are  most  li- 
able to  it  is  in  the  third  and  fourth  ages,  when  they 
begin  to  eat  voraciously.  Affected  with  this  disease, 
the  worm  becomes  dyspeptic,  appears  dull,  while  its 


148  THE   SILK   WORM. 

body  becomes  short  and  thin.  The  body  swells, 
turns  a  green  colour,  and  becomes  opaque.  The 
slightest  touch  will  break  the  skin,  which  is  covered 
with  a  greasy  humor.  The  remedy  is  plainly  point- 
ed out,  which  is  a  reduction  of  food,  and  that  jvhich 
is  not  so  nourishing. 

The  Tripes  is  another,  and  the  third  disease,  to 
which  this  useful  insect  is  liable.  It  is  caused  by  the 
stench  which  arises  from  the  litter  on  the  shelves,  and 
want  of  general  cleanliness  and  ventilation.  Worms 
thus  afflicted  become  soft  and  wrinkled,  and  look 
when  dead,  like  the  living  worm.  I  have  seen  them 
become  putrid  fifteen  or  twenty  minutes  after  death, 
and  so  rotten  that  when  taken  up  vvith  a  stick  they 
would  not  hold  together,  but  fall  to  pieces.  Worms 
in  this  country  are  more  subject  to  this  disease  than 
any  other,  though  a  little  precaution  would  prevent  it. 
Chloride  of  lime,  dissolved  in  water,  and  set  in  the 
cocoonery,  will  destroy  all  noxious  exhalations.  The 
floor  should  be  sprinkled  with  the  solution,  especially 
in  hot  weather,  when  it  is  dangerous  to,  sprinkle  with 
water  alone,  on  account  of  the  vapor  which  arises. 
Nothing  is  more  injurious  to  worms  than  wet  leaves 
and  a  damp  atmosphere.  I  have  seen  hundreds  die 
from  both  these  causes.  Whenever  the  worm*  prove 
to  be  sick,  they  should  be  immediately  conveyed 
away  where  the  air  is  pure  and  dry ;  for  one  sick 
worm  will  infect  hundreds. 

The  Yellows  is  the  fourth  disease,  and  is  brought 


THE    SILK    WORM.  149 

on  by  placing  the  worms  in  a  room  too  warm,  and 
where  the  heat  is  too  sudden.  It  generally  attacks 
the  worms  in  the  fifth  age,  near  or  about  the  time 
they  ascend  to  spin.  When  attacked  by  this  disease, 
the  body  swells  and  changes  to  a  yellow  color,  from 
which  circumstance  the  disease  takes  its  name.  The 
feet  of  the  worm  appear  drawn  up,  and  the  rings  be- 
come enlarged.  The  worm  refuses  to  eat,  goes  wan- 
dering about,  and  stains  every  thing  yellow  it  touch- 
es. After  this  the  body  becomes  soft  and  soon 
bursts,  throwing  out  a  fluid  which  is  death  to  those 
worms  upon  which  it  may  fall.  It  is  certainly  by  far 
the  most  fatal  disease  that  the  poor  worm  has  to  con- 
tend against.  The  diseased  worms  should  be  imme- 
diately attended  to,  and  conveyed  away  to  another 
apartment.  Change  of  air  and  increase  of  heat  are 
said  to  relieve  some  worms,  but  no  remedy  is  to  be 
depended  upon;  for  there  is  no  disease  which  proves 
so  deadly  as  this.  The  great  object  is  to  prevent  the 
spreading  of  the  disease.  Judii;e  Comstock  mentions 
a  case,  where  worms  were  cured  of  this  disease  by 
accidentally  eating  oak  leaves. 

The  JVluscardine  is  known  among  the  worms  in  the 
fifth  age.  It  is  occasioned  by  a  very  hot,  dry  and 
close  state  of  the  air,  and  is  known  by  the  black  spots 
on  different  parts  of  the  worm,  which  turn  different 
colors  afterwards,  until  the  whole  body  becomes  co- 
lored.    A  curious  mould  covers  the  body  finally,  and 

it  dies.    Ventilation  aijd  purification  are  the  remedies. 
13* 


%  160  THE   SILK  WORM. 

The  Passis^  the  last  disease  to  which  the  silk-worm 
is  subject,  is  occasioned  by  too  much  heat  in  the  ear- 
ly state.  The  body  in  this  disease  becomes  thin,  and 
the  appetite  destroyed.  The  only  thing  necessary, 
is  to  remove  the  diseased  worms,  ventilate  the  room, 
and  feed  temperately  with  young  leaves. 

COCOONERY. 

.  All  that  is  requisite  in  building  a  cocoonery,  is  to 
have  a  house  capable  of  being  well  ventilated,  or 
closed  up,  so  as  to  exclude  moisture,  wind  and  cold. 
Many  persons  use  barns,  sheds  and  rooms  in  their 
dwellings,  which  being  fitted  up  with  shelves,  answer 
the  purpose  very  well.  In  some  parts  of  Turkey,  a 
room  or  rooms  are  always  appropriated  to  this  pur- 
pose in  their  dwellings. 

In  furnishing  cocooneries,  Mr.  Cobb  gives  the  fol- 
lowing directions:  "I  have  used  three  tiers  of  rough 
pine  boards,  fixed  upon  upright  posts,  about  four  feet 
in  width,  one  above  the  other,  with  a  space  between 
of  two  and  a  half  feet,  affording  room  sufficient  to 
pass  all  around  the  frame,  so  that  I  could  reach  any 
part  of  it.  In  making  the  shelves,  it  is  well  to  have 
the  lowest  one  six  inches  broader  than  the  one  above 
it,  and  to  make  the  same  difference  in  the  shelves 
above,  so  as  to  break  the  fall  of  such  worms  as  happen 
to  tumble  down."  Mr.  Cobb  describes  another  me- 
thod as  follows : 
.    "  It  is  about  two  and  a  half  feet  wide,  by  five  or  six 


fTHE   SitK   WORM.  151 

long,  made  of  thin  boards,  with  a  piece  two  inches 
wide,  nailed  flat  on  the  upper  edge  along  the  sidei 
and  ends,  with  legs  about  a  foot  long  in  the  corners. 
The  legs  do  not  pass  through  the  table,  but  leave  a 
part  of  the  hole  on  the  upper  side  for  the  feet  of 
another  table  to  set  in.  Thus  contrived,  five  or  six 
of  these  tables  are  set  one  above  another,  and  are  ta- 
ken down,  cleansed,  and  again  set  up  with  facility. 
One  of  these  shelves  will  accommodate  five  or  six 
hundred  worms."  I  have  always  followed  the  plan 
of  covering  the  shelves  with  newspapers,  and  Mr. 
Cobb  recommends  the  same. 

Having  planted  the  Mulberry,  and  built  the  co- 
coonery, the  next  process  is  to  hatch  the  eggs.  The 
Italian  process  of  hatching  the  eggs  is  calculated  to 
embarrass  the  American  silk  grower,  but  be  it  known 
that  it  is  entirely  useless  in  this  country,  as  Nature 
generally  accomplishes  that  part  about  the  first  of 
May,  in  the  Middle  States.  Mr.  Rhind  describes 
the  Italian  process,  as  follows: 

"  The  temperature  of  ihe  chamber  near  the  place 
where  the  eggs  are  put,  should  be  63i  degrees;  this 
is  obtained  by  increasing  the  fire,  should  the  temper- 
ature be  less;  and  by  opening  the  ventilator,  and  even 
the  door  should  it  be  greater.  This  temperature 
should  be  observed  two  consecutive  days.  On  the 
third  day,  the  temperature  is  raised  to  66 ;  on  the 
fourth  to  68 ;  on  the  fifth  to  70 ;  on  the  eighth  to  77; 
on  the  ninth  to  79 ;  and  on  the  tenth,  eleventh,  and 
twelfth,  to  81  degrees." 


152  THE  SILK   WORM. 

How  different  is  this  from  the  process  in  our  own 
country!  Here,  all  that  is  necessary,  is  to  bring  the 
eggs  from  the  cellar,  place  them  in  a  south  window, 
taking  care  that  the  sun  does  not  shine  upon  them, 
and  they  will  hatch  in  a  few  days. 

The  time  for  hatching  is  various,  as  are  the  cli- 
mates of  our  widely  extended  country.  In  the  Mid- 
dle States,  the  first  of  May  is  the  usual  time,  though 
the  matter  must  be  governed  by  the  putting  forth  of 
the  Mulberry  leaf.  In  New  England  they  are  not 
hatched  until  the  latter  part  of  May  or  first  of  June, 
while  in  the  South,  April  is  the  usual  month.  A  very 
good  plan  for  hatching  and  feeding  is  to  place  the  eggs 
on  the  table,  and  place  over  them  a  paper  pierced 
full  of  holes,  through  which  the  worms  can  ascend 
and  fix  on  the  small,  tender  leaves  which  are  placed 
on  top  of  the  paper.  Some  culturists  peal  off  the 
eggs  from  the  paper  before  they  hatch,  but  I  do  not 
coincide  with  this  plan.  The  worms  require  some- 
thing to  fasten  their  feet  to,  and  when  the  eggs  are 
glued  fast  to  the  paper,  they  have  the  power  of  draw- 
ing themselves  from  the  egg  shells. 

One  thing  should  be  particularly  observed.  The 
worms  which  hatch  on  the  first  day,  should  be  placed 
to  themselves ;  those  hatched  on  the  second,  to  them- 
selves,  fyc.  By  this  means  each  lot  will  moult  or  shed 
their  skins  about  the  same  time,  and  be  ready  to  spin 
about  the  same  time  You  are  then  not  under  the 
necessity  of  feeding  some  while  others  are  moulting. 


THE   SILK   WORM.  143 

So  soon  as  the  worms  are  hatched  and  on  the 
leaves,  they  should  be  carried  to  the  cocoonery  and 
placed  on  the  shelves.  Three  or  four  times  a  day 
will  be  often  enough  to  feed  them  during  the  first  age. 
Young  and  tender  leaves  chopped,  should  be  given; 
because  the  worm  almost  invariably  fixes  upon  the 
edge  of  the  leaf.  This  is  owing  to  the  organic  struc- 
ture of  the  mouth,  and  when  the  leaves  are  chopped, 
the  worms  are  not  under  the  necessity  of  eating 
through  the  leaf.  No  wet  or  wilted  leaves  must  in 
any  case  be  given,  as  they  are  sure  to  produce  disease. 
The  leaves  should  be  kept  in  a  cool  cellar  or  milk- 
house  ;  I  have  kept  them  thus  for  three,  four  and  five 
days.  Feed  not  too  liberally  at  first,  as  the  litter  in- 
creases, covers  up  some  of  the  worms,  and  they  are 
apt  to  be  thrown  out  with  it.  The  leaves  from  young 
trees  are  better  than  those  from  older  ones,  during 
the  first  and  second  ages.  Great  cleanliness  should 
be  observed,  particularly  in  warm  weather,  and  to 
remove  the  litter.  All  that  is  necessary  is  to  place 
fresh  leaves  on  one  corner  of  the  table,  and  thus 
tempt  the  worms  there,  when  the  refuse  matter  may 
be  swept  off. 

When  the  worms  arrive  at  the  third  age,  they  may 
be  fed  with  unchopped  leaves  from  the  full  grown 
tree.  Frequent  cleaning  must  now  be  practised,  and 
all  diseased  worms  instantly  removed,  least  they 
should  infect  others.  If  proper  attention  is  paid  to 
cleanliness  and  to  ventilation,  very  few  or  no  worms 


154  THE   SILK   WORM. 

will  die  from  disease.  Damp  or  wilted  leaves,  want 
of  pure  air  and  space,  and  want  of  cleanliness,  are 
the  great  causes  of  disease  in  the  silk- worm.  All 
means  should  be  used  to  prevent  insects  and  mice, 
ants,  cockroaches,  &c.  from  ascending  to  the  shelves, 
as  they  will  destroy  jnany  during  one  night.  Lemon 
juice  on  the  shelves  is  said  to  prevent  the  approach  of 
ants. 

Sufficient  room  must  in  all  cases  be  allowed  the 
worms,  as  much  of  their  growth  and  product  depends 
upon  it.  In  the  first  age,  they  will  require  compara- 
tively but  little ;  but  as  they  advance  in  age  and  size,  , 
they  will  necessarily  require  more  room.  Mr.  Cobb 
has  laid  down  the  space  which  is  required  in  every 
age  of  the  worm.  He  says,  *'  It  is  calculated  the 
worms  proceeding  from  an  ounce  of  eggs  (40,000) 
should  have  space  as  follows : 

sq.  feet,    inches. 
In  the  first  age,  7  4 

In  the  second  age,  14  8 

In  the  third  age,       34         10 
In  the  fourth  age,     82  6 

In  the  fifth  age,      183  4" 

No  certain  rule,  however,  can  be  be  laid  down, 
and  the  culturist  can  alone  come  at  the  matter  by  ex- 
perience. 

The  quantity  of  food  eaten  by  a  given  number  of 
worms  is  astonishing  and  almost  incredible;  and 
equally  so  the  quantity  of  silk  which  they  produce. 


THE   SILK   WORM.  155 

Many  culturists  have  attempted  to  ascertain  the 
weight  in  each  case.  M.  Bonafous  informs  us,  that 
7217  pounds  of  leaves  were  required  to  feed  200,000 
worms.  Count  de  Kazzi  says  that  200,000  worms 
will  destroy  10,000  pounds  of  leaves,  as  follows : 

lbs. 

In  the  first  age,  50 

In  the  second  age,     150 

In  the  third  age,         460 

In  the  fourth  age,     1 390 
r  In  the  fifth  age,       7950' 

Count  Dondolo  thinks  that  twenty-one  pounds  of 
leaves  will  make  one  pound  of  cocoons, 
vv-  Congress  published  a  manual  in  1838,  respecting 
the  quantity  of  food  required  each  day  of  the  silk- 
worm's existence.  I  shall  jjive  a  few  extracts,  though 
I  have  not  the  least  faith  in  such  systematic  rules. 
The  number  of  worms  is  180,000. 
"  1  st  day. — Three  pounds  and  three  quarters  of  chop- 
ped leaves,  six  hours  between  each  of  four  meals, 
the  smallest  quantity  at  first,  and  increasing  the  quan- 
tum. 

"  2d  day. — On  this  day,  about  six  pounds  will  be 
needed,  chopped  very  small.  This  will  sufiice  for 
the  four  regular  meals,  the  first  of  which  should  be 
the  least,  increasing  them  as  they  proceed,  as  was 
done  in  the  meals  of  the  first  day. 

*^3d  day. — This  day  twelve  pounds  of  soft  leaves, 
chopped  very  small,  will  be  required  for  the  four 
meals.  The  worms  will  now  feed  with  avidity. 


l56  THE  SILK  WOttM. 

'*  4th  day. — Six  pounds  twelve  ounces  of  chopped 
leaves  should  be  given.  For  the  quantity  should  be 
diminished  as  the  appetite  increases.  The  first  meal 
should  be  of  about  two  pounds  four  ounces,  and  the 
other  meals  should  decrease  in  proportion  as  the 
quantity  of  leaves  given  before,  appears  not  to  have 
been  thoroughly  eaten. 

"  5th  day. — This  day,  one  pound  and  a  half  of 
young  leaves,  chopped  small,  will  be  about  sufficient. 
They  should  be  scattered  very  lightly  several  times 
in  the  day,  on  the  sheets  of  paper,  where  there  ap- 
pears still  to  be  worms  feeding.  Should  the  worms 
have  left  off  feeding,  it  would  be  unnecessary  to 
distribute  any  further  quantity.  Towards  the  end 
of  the  day,  the  wo^ms  are  torpid  ;  a  few  begin  to  re- 
vive. 

"  6th  day. — For  this  day  will  be  needed  nine 
pounds  of  tender  shoots,  and  nine  pounds  of  ten- 
der leaves  of  the  Mulberry,  well  picked  and  chopped 
small. 

"7th  day. — Thirty  pounds  of  chopped  leaves  will 
be  required  to-day.  This  quantity  divided  into  four 
portions,  should  be  given  at  intervals  of  six  hours, 
the  two  first  meals  less  plentiful  than  the  two  remain- 
ing. 

"  8th  day. — Thirty-three  pounds  of  fine  chopped 
leaves,  well  picked,  will  be  necessary,  and  this  time 
the  two  first  meals  should  be  the  largest. 

"  9th  day. — This  day  only  nine  pounds  of  picked 


THE  SItK  WORM.  16^ 

leaves,  chopped  small,  will  be  required.  The  worms 
sink  into  torpor,  and  the  next  day  they  will  have  cast 
their  skins. 

'^  10th  day. — This  day  fifteen  pounds  of  the  small 
shoots  will  be  necessary,  and  equally  as  much  of 
the  picked  leaves,  chopped  rather  less  than  hith- 
erto. 

"11th  day. — This  day  ninety  pounds  of  leaves, 
chopped,  will  be  needed.  The  two  first  meals,  the 
least  copious,  because  towards  the  close  of  the  day, 
the  worms  grow  voraciously  hungry, 

"  12th  day. — This  day  there  should  be  given  nine- 
ty-seven pounds  of  picked  leaves,  chopped  and  divid- 
ed into  four  meals — the  three  first  meals  most  plenti- 
ful. Towards  evening  the  hunger  of  the  worm 
decreases ;  consequently  the  last  should  be  the  least 
meal. 

'« 13th  day. — This  day,  about  fifty-two  pounds  and 
a  half  chopped  leaves,  will  be  sufficient.  The  de- 
crease of  food  is  in  consequence  of  the  diminution  of 
appetite.  They  should  have  four  meals,  the  largest 
first ;  and  the  last  the  least  meal.  Those  only  that 
seem  to  require  it  should  be  fed. 

"  14th  day. — Twenty-seven  pounds  of  picked 
leaves  will  be  required ;  if  not  enough,  more  may  be 
added  ;  if  too  much,  less  given. 

'<  15th  day. — The  worms  begin  to  rouse,  and  thus 

accomplish  the  third  age.     The  general  view  of  this 

age  presents  the  following  result.    In  six  days  the 
14 


158  THE   SILK  WORM. 

worm  goes  through  its  third  age.  In  this  age,  those 
worms  proceeding  from  five  ounces  of  eggs,  hare 
consumed  nearly  three  hundred  pounds  of  leaves  and 
young  shoots. 

"  16th  day. — On  this  day,  thirty-seven  and  a  half 
pounds  of  leaves  and  young  shoots  will  be  needed, 
coarsely  chopped  with  a  large  blade. 

*«  17th  day. — For  this  day  will  be  wanted  one 
hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds  of  sorted  leaves,  a 
little  cut.  The  two  first  meals  ought  to  be  the  light- 
est. 

"18th  day. — For  this  day  will  be  needed  two 
hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds  of  sorted  leaves,  a 
little  cut.  The  two  first  meals  the  most  plentiful ; 
the  last  to  be  about  seventy-five  pounds. 

"19th  day. — This  day  the  distribution  of  the  cut 
leaves  should  be  two  hundred  and  fifty-five  pounds ; 
the  three  first  meals  of  about  seventy-five  pounds 
each — the  fourth  of  forty-five  pounds  only. 

"  2Qth  day. — No  more  than  one  hundred  and 
twenty-eight  pounds  of  picked  leaves  will  be  need- 
ed this  day ;  because  the  hunger  of  the  worm  dimin- 
ishes much.  The  first  meal  should  be  most  consid- 
erable. 

"21st  day. — Thirty-five  pounds  of  picked  leaves, 
are  enough  for  this  day.  It  is  easy  to  find  out  when, 
and  in  what  quantities,  the  worms  need  most  their 
food. 

"  22d  day, — The  worms  rouse  on  this  day,  and  ac- 


THE    SILK   WORM.  169 

K 

complish  their  fourth  age."  In  about  seven  days  tliey 
have  accomplished  their  fourth  moulting,  and  cast 
their  skins.  They  have  consumed  in  that  period, 
two  hundred  and  seven  pounds  of  leaves  for  each 
ounce  of  eggs,  or  40,000  worms. 

"2Sd  day. — Since  the  preceding  day,  almost  all  the 
worms  must  have  accomplished  their  fourth  moulting, 
and  be  already  roused.  The  worms  proceeding  from 
one  ounce  of  eggs,  in  the  fifth  age,  consume  about 
one  thousand  and  ninety-eight  pounds  of  sorted,  pick- 
ed leaves,  which  makes  the  quantity  of  leaves  requi- 
site for  the  five  ounces,  to  be  five  thousand  four  hun- 
dred and  ninety  pounds  weight. 

"  24th  day. — For  this  day  will  be  wanted  two  hun- 
dred and  seventy  pounds  of  sorted  leaves,  divided  in- 
to four  meals ;  the  first  of  which  should  be  the  least, 
of  about  fifty-two  pounds ;  and  the  last  most  plenti- 
ful, of  ninety-seven  pounds. 

"  25th  day. — This  day  the  worms  will  require 
about  four  hundred  and  twenty  pounds  of  sorted 
leaves.  The  first  feed  of  seventy-seven  pounds;  the 
last  should  be  the  largest,  and  of  about  one  hundred 
and  twenty  pounds.     . 

'^  26th  day. — This  day  the  worms  will  want  five 
hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  sorted  leaves.  The  first 
feed  should  be  of  one  hundred  and  twenty  pounds,  and 
the  last  of  one  hundred  and  fifty. 

"27th  day. — The  worms  will  require  this  day 
eight  hundred  and  ten  pounds  of  sorted  leaves.    The 


160  THE   SILK  WORM« 

first  feed  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  the  last 
of  two  hundred  and  ten  pounds. 

"  28th  day. — This  day  the  worms  should  have 
nine  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds  of  picked 
leaves,  divided  into  five  feeds,  the  last  the  largest. 

"29th  day. — The  worms  will  require  this  day, 
nine  hundred  pounds  of  well  sorted  leaves.  The 
first  meal  should  be  the  largest,  and  those  following 
should  diminish.  Should  there  be  any  intermediate 
meals  wanted,  they  must  be  given  as  before. 

"  SOth  day. — The  \vorms  this  day  must  have  six 
hundred  and  sixty  pfounds  of  well  sorted  leaves. 
The  proportion  of  leaves  must  diminish,  as  the  ap- 
petite of  the  worms  decreases  much.  The  food 
must,  as  usual,  be  divided  into  four  messes.  The 
largest  meal  given  first,  and  gradually  diminishing. 
The  first  meal  should  be  two  hundred  and  ten 
^jp^ounds. 

^*  31st  day. — The  worms  this  day  need  four  hun- 
dred and  ninety-five  pounds  of  leaves,  which  must 
be  distributed  as  it  may  be  wanted. 

"  32d  day. — This  last  day  they  attain  perfection, 
which  may  be  ascertained  by  the  following  direc- 
tions : — 

"1st.  When  on  putting  some  leaves  on  the  wick- 
ers, the  insects  get  upon  the  leaves  without  eating 
them,  and  rear  their  heads  as  if  in  search  of  some* 
thing  else. 

"  2d.  When,  on  looking  at  them  horizontally,  the 


THE  SILK  WORM.  161 

light  shines  through  them,  and  they  appear  of  a  whi- 
tish yellow  transparent  color. 

"  3d.  When  numbers  of  the  worms,  which  were 
fastened  to  the  inside  of  the  edges  of  the  wickers, 
and  straightened,  now  get  upon  the  edges,  and  move 
slowly  along,  instinct  urging  them  to  seek  change  of 
place. 

"  4th.  When  numbers  of  worms  leave  the  centre 
of  the  wickers  and  try  to  reach  the  edges,  and  crawl 
up  upon  them. 

"  5th.  When  their  rings  draw  in,  and  their  green- 
ish white  color  changes  to  a  deep  golden  hue. 

*'  6th.  When  their  skins  become  wrinkled  about 
the  neck,  and  their  bodies  have  more  softness  to  the 
touch  than  heretofore,  and  feel  like  soft  dough. 

"  7th.  When,  in  taking  a  worm  in  the  hand  and 
looking  through  it,  the  whole  body  has  assumed  the 
transparency  of  a  ripe  yellow  plum.  When  these 
signs  appear  in  any  of  the  worms,  every  thing 
should  be  prepared  for  their  rising,  so  that  those 
worms  which  are  ready  to  rise  may  not  lose  their 
strength  and  silk  in  seeking  for  the  support  they  re- 
quire." 

The  above  are  the  rules  of  European  cultivators, 
but  I  do  not  believe  in  the  theory  ;  for  however  well 
it  may  succeed  in  feeding  worms  on  this  plan  in  Eu- 
rope, it  cannot  be  observed  in  America.  I  have  rais- 
ed as  large  worms  as  were  ever  produced  in  Europe 

or  America,  some  of  them  being  from  three  inches 
14* 


THE   SILK  WORM. 

and  a  half  to  three  and  three  quarters  in  length; 
they  were  not  the  mammoth  worm.  I  am  in  favor  of 
chopping  the  leaves,  as  the  worms  invariably  fix  up- 
on the  edge  \  but  I  do  not  see  any  need  of  sorting,  ex- 
cept it  be  in  the  first,  and  perhaps  the  second  age. 
In  the  fourth  and  fifth  ages,  when  the  worms  are 
large  and  vigorous,  there  is  no  necessity  even  for 
chopping  the  leaves,  as  the  worms  will  readily  devour 
them. 

ASCENSION    OF    THE    WORM. 

Branches  of  hickory  or  oak  should  be  procured, 
and  the  leaves  withered  in  the  sun,  that  they  may  be 
ready  when  the  worms  cease  to  eat,  and  prepare  to 
ascend.  These  branches  should  either  be  suspended 
over  them,  or  placed  on  the  back  part  of  the  shelves, 
in  such  a  manner  that  the  worms  may  crawl  upon 
them  without  difficulty.  When  the  blanches  aie  pla- 
ced on  the  shelves  green,  the  leaves  contract  while  the 
worms  are  spinning,  and  interfere  with  their  labors. 
Some  worms  will  wander  about, wasting  their  silk; 
these  should  be  placed  upon  the  branches.  In  three 
or  four  days  after  the  last  worms  have  ascended, 
the  cocoons  may  be  gathered  from  the  bushes. 

The  only  thing  to  be  observed  in  gathering  the  co* 
coons  is,  not  to  press  them  too  tightly  in  the  hand, 
but  to  give  them  a  gentle  rolling  motion,  by  which, 
they  will  be  easily  and  cleanly  detached  from  the 
leaves.    When  they  are  all  gathered,  they  should  not 


THE  SILK  WORM.  163 

be  suffered  to  remain  in  the  basket,  but  should  be  im- 
mediately baked  in  shallow  baskets  in  an  oven,  stir- 
ring them  and  taking  care  that  they  are  not  scorched. 
They  should  then  be  spread  upon  tables  or  shelves  in 
an  airy  situation,  and  turned  over  every  day.  Every 
thing  depends  upon  curing  the  cocoons  well ;  for  if 
they  are  suffered  to  lie  in  piles  they  mould,  and  a^ mois- 
ture is  thrown  out  which  gives  them  a  bad  odor,  and 
they  are  not  worth  reeling.  A  great  quantity  of  co- 
coons has  been  ruined  by  not  attending  to  this  neces- 
sary and  indispensable  part  of  the  business.  When 
improperly  cured,  the  cocoons  reel  with  great  diffi- 
culty. 

With  respect  to  stifling  the  worm,  various  modes 
are  in  use.  vSome  recommend  their  being  placed  in 
the  sun  two  or  three  hot  days ;  but  it  appears  to  me, 
this  is  an  uncertain  method.  The  next  method  is  the 
oven,  which  I  have  mentioned,  and  which  I  think  is 
the  best.  Mr.  Cobb  says — *'I  have  used  the  first 
method  with  success.  The  oven  being  moderately 
heated,  the  cocoons  were  spread  out  in  oblong  bas- 
kets, eight  inches  deep,  in  box  covers,  pans,  &c.  and 
permitted  to  remain  in  the  oven  half  an  hour." 

Some  recommend  the  steam  of  boiling  water,  and 
others  the  vapor  of  hot  spirits  of  wine  or  alcohol. 
Many  other  modes  are  recommended,  but  I  prefer  ba- 
king them  in  an  oven. 


164  THE  SILK  WORM. 

SEED. 

.  Always  choose  the  largest  and  firmest  cocoons  for 
seed.  The  floss  should  be  taken  off,  and  the  cocoons 
spread  upon  a  table  covered  with  newspapers.  The 
room  should  be  darkened  and  cool.  In  from  twelve 
to  fifteen  days,  according  to  the  warmth  of  the  wea- 
ther, the  flies  will  come  forth.  The  males  and  fe- 
males will  commence  copulating,  and  should  not  be 
disturbed.  The  male  moth  is  known  from  the  female 
by  being  much  smaller ;  and  from  the  constant  mo- 
tion of  its  wings,  as  it  sweeps  with  an  airy  circle 
round  the  female.  The  female  will  lay  from  two  to 
five  hundred  eggs ;  and  one  hundred  female  moths  it 
is  computed,  will  produce  an  ounce  of  eggs,  or  forty 
thousand  worms.  The  eggs  adhere  to  the  paper,  and 
should  be  rolled  up  and  put  in  some  place  secure 
from  mice  and  other  creatures  which  are  fond  of 
them.  It  is  a  mistaken  notion  that  they  must  be  kept 
where  they  will  not  freeze.  I  have  known  eggs  to 
remain  all  winter  on  a  window  pane,  where  they  were 
laid,  without  the  least  injury.  In  the  spring,  they 
may  be  placed  in  a  cellar  or  ice-house  until  the  Mul- . 
berry  puts  forth  its  leaves ;  but  generally  this  is  not 
necessary,  as  the  same  warmth  that  hatches  the  eggs, 
will  bring  forth  the  leaves,  Nature  is  seldom  remiss 
in  her  duty,  timing  all  things  with  beautiful  regulari- 
ty. 


THE   SILK    WORM.  165 

OTHER   KINDS    OF  FOOD. 

Though  it  is  universally  acknowledged  that  the 
Mulberry  is  the  food  designed  by  Nature  for  the 
worm,  attempts  have  been  nnade  to  substitute  some 
other  kind,  which  might  be  produced  with  more  fa- 
cility than  the  Mulberry.  There  are  many  kinds  of 
leaves  upon  which  the  silk-worm  will  live,  among 
which  are  lettuce,  and  the  leaves  of  the  hop,  hemp, 
dandelion,  rose  and  fig,  and  some  say  the  blackberry. 
The  leaves  of  the  currant  are  also  spoken  of.  But  I 
do  not  believe  these  leaves  will  answer  any  other  pur- 
pose than  to  keep  the  worms  alive  until  the  proper 
food  can  be  obtained,  for  there  is  a  resinous  matter 
in  the  leaf  of  the  Mulberry,  which  forms  the  silk. 
In  the  Cabinet  Cyclopedia  will  be  found  a  letter 
from  a  lady,  who  says — "  In  the  summer  of  1785, 1 
subsisted  several  thousand  worms  entirely  on  lettuce 
leaves  during  three  weeks,  and  for  the  remaining 
short  period  of  their  lives  I  afforded  them  their  na- 
tural food.  At  the  end  of  a  month  from  their  hatch- 
ing they  began  to  spin,  and  eleven  ounces  of  silk 
were  procured  from  four  thousand  cocoons."  This 
lady  believed  that  they  could  not  be  fed  longer  on 
lettuce  than  three  weeks,  for  on  trial  she  found  that 
but  very  few  spun  at  all. 

The  same  lady  informs  us,  that  she  fed  worms  on 
blackberry  leaves,  and  that  they  ate  the  leaves  of  the 
elm  with  great  avidity.    She  also  found  that  they  ate 


166  THE   SILK   WORM. 

the  leaves  and  flowers  of  the  primrose  and  cowslip. 
She  afterwards  gave  them  the  Mulberry  leaves,  which 
as  soon  as  they  had  tasted,  they  refused  all  others. 
She  declares  that  the  worm  will  not  touch  any  flow- 
er of  a  red  color.  Mademoiselle  Coge  tells  us,  that 
she  fed  worms  on  the  viper  grass,  and  that  the 
silk  was  equal  to  any  produced  from  the  natural 
food. 

I  consider  lettuce  the  best  substitute  for  the  Mul- 
berry, but  I  do  not  believe  that  worms  can  be  reared 
on  it  to  any  profit.  Indeed  it  is  useless  to  look  for  a 
substitute  so  long  as  the  Mulberry  is  so  easily  culti- 
vated. 

REPEATED   CROPS. 

Culturists  are  fully  of  the  opinion,  that  two,  and 
even  more  crops  of  silk  may  be  raised  in  a  season, 
and  experience  seems  to  go  to  prove  it.  In  some 
parts  of  Italy,  two  crops  are  raised  from  the  white 
worm,  called  the  two  crop  worm.  This  worm  w^ill 
finish  its  cocoon,  come  forth,  lay  its  eggs,  and  then 
those  eggs  will  hatch,  thus  producing  two  crops. 

There  is  no  doubt  but  that  the  two  crop  system  is 
profitable,  and  a  very  good  plan  would  be  this :  If 
you  wish  to  raise  two  hundred  thousand  in  a  season, 
bring  up  from  the  cellar  fifty  thousand,  and  hatch 
them.  The  week  after,  bring  up  fifty  thousand  more  ; 
and  the  next  week  fifty  thousand  more,  until  all  are 
batched.     Now  when  the  last  parcel  is  hatched,  the 


THE   SILK   WORM.  167 

first  will  begin  to  spin ;  and  when  the  last  are  a  week 
old,  the  second  lot  of  worms  will  ascend;  so  that 
there  would  not  be  that  trouble  which  would  attend 
cultivating  the  whole  number  hatched  atone  time,  be- 
cause many  of  them  would  be  small,  and  the  number 
would  be  continually  decreasing,  as  they  ascended  to 
spin.  By  having  the  eggs  in  an  ice-house,  they  can 
be  kept  back  at  pleasure. 

It  has  been  a  notion  with  some  culturists,  that  the 
silk-worm  will  degenerate,  as  Buffon  has  said  of  the 
American  people.  I  am  one  of  those  who  entertain 
the  belief,  that  by  choosing  bad  cocoons  for  seed,  and 
by  bad  management,  the  worms  will  become  deterio- 
rated ;  and,  on  the  contrary,  when  good  seed  are  cho- 
sen, and  the  worms  well  attended,  the  breed  may  be 
improved  vastly. 

I  have  now  treated  of  the  cultivation  of  the  Mul- 
berry, and  the  rearing  of  worms ;  I  shall  next  pro- 
ceed to  treat  of  the  art  of  reeling  silk  for  the  manu- 
facturer. Much  of  the  profit  of  the  silk  culture  de- 
pends upon  reeling  well ;  and,  therefore,  the  reeler 
should  apply  him  or  herself  to  acquiring  the  art 
thoroughly.  Some  persons  have  an  idea  that  it  is  an 
extremely  difficult  art  to  learn,  but  attention  and  per- 
severance will  soon  overcome  all  obstacles.  Practice 
is  all  that  is  requisite.  In  a  few  trials  the  author  of 
this  learned  to  reel,  and  made  some  sewing  silk  which 
was  as  even  and  beautiful  as  any  from  the  reels  of  It- 
aly.    There  could  be  no  more  beautiful  employment 


1C8  siiiK. 

for  bur  ladies  than  this,  and  the  day  is  not  far  distant 
when  we  shall  not  point  to  an  isolated  lady  as  a  good 
reeler,  but  when  there  will  be  hundreds,  and  perhaps 
thousands,  who  will  reap  a  rich  subsistence  from 
it. 


SILK. 


ART  OF    REELING   SILK. 


The  first  thing  to  be  done  towards  reeling  silk,  is 
to  obtain  a  good  reel,  and  there  are  a  number  in  use 
besides  the  Piedmontese,  among  which  are  those  of 
Mr.  Smith  of  Baltimore,  Mr.  Gay  of  Lisbon,  and 
Mr.  Cobb  of  Dedham.  I  have  myself  used  Mr. 
Cobb's  reel,  and  found  it  answered  the  purpose  very 
well.  It  is  made  in  the  following  manner :  A  frame 
of  pine  three  feet  six  inches  in  length,  and  two  feet 
in  width,  the  height  of  which  is  three  feet.  There 
is  a  bar  at  the  front  end  which  traverses  with  a  later- 
al motion  of  five  inches,  and  on  this  bar,  which  is  two 
feet  five  inches  in  length,  the  eyes  are  fixed  through 
which  the  threads  pass,  and  by  the  transversing  of 
which  the  silk  is  scattered  on  the  reel.  On  the  back 
end  of  the  frame  is  placed  the  reel,  with  a  wheel  on 
each  end  of  the  axle.  On  the  right  side  of  the  front 
end  of  the  frame,  is  a  large  wheel  eleven  inches  in  di- 


SILK.  169 

ameter,  which  is  used  to  set  the  reel  in  motion  by 
means  of  a  band,  which  passes  from  it  round  the 
smaller  wheel  on  one  end  of  the  axle.  On  the  other 
front  side  of  the  reel  is  a  horizontal  wheel,  with  a 
band  which  passes  from  it  to  the  wheel  on  the  other 
end  of  the  axle  of  the  reel.  There  is  a  moveable 
wire  attached  to  the  horizontal  wheel,  and  also  to  the 
transversing  bar,  which  causes  it  to  traverse  every 
time  the  wheel  turns  round. 

I  have  attempted  to  describe  the  reel  merely  for 
the  gratification  of  the  reader,  as  it  will  always  be 
cheaper  to  buy  the  reel  than  to  make  it.  They  can 
be  had  at  almost  any  of  the  variety  stores,  or  stores 
where  Mulberry  seed  and  cocoons  are  bought  and 
sold. 

Having  obtained  a  good  reel,  the  next  thing  to  be 
done  is  to  sort  the  cocoons.  Some  culturists  divide 
them  into  five  different  qualities,  though  I  never  found 
it  necessary  to  make  more  than  two  or  three  parcels, 
choosing  the  most  firm  and  fine  cocoons  to  make  the 
best  silk.  The  qualities  are  as  follows:  First^  the 
fine  cocoons,  are  those  which  have  a  very  smooth, 
close  and  fine  grain.  Second^  the  chiques  or  skins,  are 
soft  and  easily  compressed  under  the  fingers.  Third, 
the  demi  fine^  which  have  a  large,  flimsy  grain. 
'Fourth J  the  double  cocoons^  are  those  which  are  uni- 
ted ;  or  those  in  which  two  or  more  worms  have  spun 
together.  These  can  seldom  pr  never  be  reeled. 
Fifth,  the  satin  cocoons,  which  ^are  the  worst  of  all. 

n 


no  SILK. 

The  next  process  is  to  pick  the  cocoons,  or  take 
off  the  floss,  which  is  sometimes  done  by  children. 
Other  reelers  run  the  floss  off"  after  the  cocoons  are 
placed  in  the  water.  The  water  in  the  basin  or  pot 
should  be  soft,  such  as  rain  water,  and  heated  to 
about  180  degrees  Fahrenheit.  Experience,  howev- 
er, is  necessary  to  ascertain  the  temperature  required, 
as  different  qualities  of  cocoons  require  different  de- 
grees  of  heat  in  the  water.  Generally,  the  water 
should  be  nearly  to  boiling  heat,  and  kept  so  by  means 
of  a  furnace  under  the  pot  or  basin.  If  the  water  is 
too  cold,  the  thread  will  not  run  freely ;  but  will  catch 
and  draw  up  to  the  reel ;  and  if  too  hot,  the  silk  will 
come  off*  in  flakes,  which  will  ruin  the  even  texture 
of  the  fabric  or  sewing  silk.  A  brisker  fire  or  a  lit-  - 
tie  cold  water  will  remedy  defects. 

The  water  being  of  the  proper  temperature,  a  dou- 
ble hand  full  of  cocoons  are  thrown  into  the  pot  or  ba- 
sin and  stirred  with  a  stick  split  at  the  ends,  or  with 
a  broom  corn  wisp,  which  will  catch  the  floating 
fibres ;  and  if  the  cocoons  have  been  picked  before, 
these  fibres  may  be  immediately  attached  to  the  reel 
as  fast  as  found.  If  the  floss  has  not  been  previously 
taken  off",  it  may  be  run  off*  after  catching  up  the  end. 
When  the  silk  begins  to  run  smoothly  and  evenly,  it 
may  be  broken  off*;  the  one  end  fastened  to  the  reel, 
and  the  other,  which  is  floss,  may  be  laid  aside  among 
the  refuse  silk.  When  a  sufficient  number  of  the 
fibres  are  obtained,  they  should  be  united,  and  passed 


SILK.  171 

through  the  guides  and  fastened  to  an  arm  of  the  reel. 
The  ingenious  machinest  of  Lisbon,  Connecticut, 
Mr.  Gay,  who  is  now  disseminating  information  on 
the  silk  culture  through  the  Middle  States,  has  in- 
vented a  machine,  which  takes  the  silk  from  the  co- 
coon, and  immediately  winds  it  on  spools,  thus  saving 
the  trouble  and  time  of  reeling,  and  then  taking  the 
silk  from  the  reel  to  the  spools.  His  machine  has  a 
fly  wheel  to  it,  which  fans  and  dries  the  silk  before  it 
reaches  the  spool. 

On  Mr.  Cobb's  reel,  two  skeins  can  be  reeled  at  the 
same  time.  At  the  first  the  reel  should  be  turned 
with  a  slow  and  regular  motion,  until  it  is  found  that 
the  silk  runs  well,  when  the  reel  may  be  turned  ra- 
pidly. As  fast  as  the  cocoons  run  off,  or  the  thread 
breaks,  new  ones  must  be  attached,  which  is  done 
simply  by  placing  the  fibre  smoothly  along,  side  of 
the  others,  and  giving  it  a  gentle  twist  with  the  wet 
fingers.  Some  recommend  crossing  the  threads,  but 
according  to  my  experience  this  is  not  a  good  plan. 
The  cocoons  after  being  wound  off  in  part,  and  the 
chrysalis  of  those  that  are  entirely  unwound  should 
be  taken  out  of  the  water ;  otherwise  there  is  a  like- 
lihood of  the  silk  being  stained.  So  soon  as  there  is 
discovered  the  least  tinge  in  the  water,  it  should  be 
changed. 

It  would  be  useless  to  go  any  further  into  a  detail, 
of  th«  art  of  reeling  silk.  I  might  write  a  dozen  fo- 
lios on  the  subject^  and  still  practice  would  be  neces* 


172  SILK. 

sary  to  give  the  reeler  an  adequate  id«a  of  the  pro^ 
cess.  A  few  hours  speiat  in  reeling  will  teach  more 
thaa  volumes,  which  only  describe  it.  Let  not  the 
person  despair,  for  the  art  may  be  acquired  in  a  few 
days,  and  even  in  a  few  hours. 

Silk,  when  taken  from  the  reel,  is  called  raw  silk, 
because  it  is  not  manufactured.  There  are  three 
qualities,  enumerated  in  proportion  to  fineness,  or  by 
the  fibres  taken  from  a  certain  number  of  cocoons. 
This  is  the  reeler's  business. 

It  is  not  only  necessary  to  be  particular  in  reeling 
silk,  but  also  in  every  thing  appertaining  to  the  busi- 
ness. Care  is  necessary  in  disbanding  silk  from  the 
reel,  as  its  fibres  are  subject  to  different  degrees  of 
tension.  Hence  the  necessity  of  sorting  the  cocoons 
well.  They  should  all  be  of  one  kind;  that  is,  all 
that  are  reeled  in  one  lot.  If  part  are  of  the 
fine  or  demi  fiyie^  all  of  them  should  be.  There  are 
other  causes,  however,  to  which  the  different  degrees 
of  tension  is  owing.  Some  of  the  cocoons  are  long- 
er in  the  water  than  others,  and  the  slender  last  ends 
of  some  are  united  with  the  strong  first  ends  of  other 
cocoons.  It  is,  therefore,  certain  that  some  of  the 
fibres  will  stretch  much  more  readily  than  others. 

The  skein  of  silk  should  in  all  cases  remain  on  the 
reel  several  hours,  or  even  a  day  when  convenient; 
by  which  it  will  become  thoroughly  dry.  I  have  no 
doubt  but  that  Mr.  Gay's  machine  is  best  calculated 
to  take  silk  from  the  cocoon,  to  say  nothing  of  the 


SILK.  17S 

saving  in  time  and  trouble.  As  was  observed  before, 
it  takes  the  silk  immediately  from  the  cocoon  to  the 
spools ;  the  fibre  is  dried  before  it  reaches  the  spool, 
and  consequently  cannot  stick  to  those  upon  which  it 
is  laid.  The  unequal  contractioR  of  the  fibres  cannot 
take  place  on  the  small  circumference  of  the  spool,  as 
is  the  case  on  the  reel.  / 

When  the  skein  is  perfectly  dry  on  the  reel,  it 
should  be  gathered  up  in  a  mass  with  the  fingers, 
loosened  from  the  bars,  and  after  being  taken  ofi,  it 
should  be  tied  w^ith  shreds  of  refuse  silk  in  all  those 
places  where  it  rested  on  the  bars  of  the  reel.  It 
should  be  tied,  however,  before  it  is  taken  from  the 
reel.  Double  it  then  and  tie  it  near  each  end.  A 
piece  of  folded  paper  should  be  fastened  to  the  end  of 
the  thread  to  prevent  it  from  being  lost  in  the  skein, 
which  sometimes  happens,  and  gives  considerable 
trouble  to  find  it. 

DIFFERENT    KINDS    OF   SILK. 

There  are  different  kinds  of  silk,  of  which  I  shall 
give  a  description  in  the  language  of  Mr.  D'Homer- 
gue,  an  experienced  culturist  and  reeler.  He  ob- 
serves, "  In  winding  off  the  silk  from  the  cocoons, 
whether  perfect  or  imperfect,  the  finest  and  best 
threads  are  not  those  which  are  first  spun ;  on  the 
contrary  the  first  threads  which  come  oflf  the  cocoons 
are  coarse,  uneven,  and  unfit  for  use  in  the  silk  manu- 
factories, either  of  the  stuffs,  twist  or  sewing  silk. 
15* 


174  silk:; 

This  loose,  furzy  substance,  which  is  about  one-tenth 
part  of  the  whole  silk  on  the  cocoon,  is  called  in 
French  fleuret,  and  in  English  JlosSy  from  the  Latin 
flosy  flower  y  a  name  which  reminds  us  of  kicas  a 
non  lucendo.  As  soon  as  the  threads  of  the  silk  in 
the  process  of  reeling  come  out  fine  and  regular,  this 
floss  is  seperated  from  them  and  put  aside  for  use,  as 
will  be  presently  mentioned.  To  it  are  added  all  the 
threads  which,  either  from  some  defectin  the  cocoons, 
or  from  the  awkwardness  of  the  women  employed  in 
the  differcKt  operations  of  reeling,  winding,  and 
doubling,  either  break  off"  so  as  not  to  be  easily  uni- 
ted to  the  other  threads,  or  come  out  uneven,  or  oth- 
erwise unfit  for  use;  these  are  called  the  waste  silk^ 
and  added  to  the  Jioss^  assume  with  it  the  same  name. 
This  mass,  boiled  in  soap  and  water,  afterwards 
carded  and  spun  on  the  spinning  wheel,  takes  the  name 
in  French  of  hourre  de  soi  or  filoselle.  Boyer,  in  his 
dictionary,  translates  the  word  filoselle  into  English 
by  ferret  silk  or  flurt  silk.  This  last  name  is  evi- 
dently a  corruption,  or  an  English  pronunciation  of 
the  French  word  fieuret,  floss  silk. 

'•  This  floss,  ferret,  or  flurt  silk,  by  whatever 
name  it  may  be  called,  is  employed  in  making  silk 
stockings,  mittens,  gloves,  suspenders,  night  caps,  and 
in  general,  all  kinds  of  silk  hosiery.  1  have  heard 
that  the  women  of  Connecticut  knit  silk  stockings 
and  naittens  out  of  the  silk  which  they  extract  from 
tlie  cocoons. 


SfLK.  175 

"Thus  nothing  is  Ibst  of  the  precious  material 
produced  by  the  silk-worm.  I  mean  by  those  who 
understand  the  art  of  employing  it.  Otherwise,  all 
experiments  by  those  who  are  unskilled  in  the  bu- 
siness, cannot  but  be  attended  with  consi  derable 
loss. 

"  There  are  then,  &ix  different  kinds  of  silk,  ex- 
tracted from  the  cocoons  by  processes  of  various 
kinds,  or  which  vary  more  or  less  from  each  other  in 
the  manner  of  using  them,  and  all  which  require  not 
only  skill  and  dexterity,  but  knowledge  acquired  by 
long  practice.  I  shall  recapitulate  them  in  their  or- 
der, according  to  their  degrees  of  fineness. 

1.  Silk  of  the  first  quality,  or  singles. 

2.  Silk  of  the  second  quality,  or  organzine. 

3.  Sil^  of  the  third  quality,  or  tram  silk. 

4.  Sewing  silk  of  the  first  and  second  quality. 

5.  Cordonnet,  or  twist  of  ditto. 

6.  Filoselle,  or  floss  silk.'* 

The  utmost  economy  must  be  practised  in  reeling 
silk,  if  the  culturist  would  reap  the  full  profit  of  the 
business.  No  particle  of  silk,  however  small,  should 
be  thrown  away,  but  on  the  contrary  all  should  be 
saved,  and  added  to  the  mass  of  refuse  silk.  As  the 
culturist  who  does  not  reel  his  silk,  but  sells  the  co- 
coons loses  a  great  part  of  the  profits,  so  he  who 
reels  and  does  not  save  all  the  particles  of  waste 
silk,  loses  in  like  manner  much  of  the  profits^. 


176  SILK. 

PREPARING  SILK. 

Preparatory  to  being  dyed,  silk  should  be  cleans^ 
ed.  As  spun  by  the  worm,  silk  contains  several 
substances.  First,  colouring  matter;  second,  gum; 
third,  wax;  and  fourth,  an  oil  resembling  in  its  nature 
the  essential  oils  of  vegetables.  The  gum  is  of  a 
Iriable  texture,  and  appears  of  a  reddish  yellow  co- 
lor. Silk,  when  analyzed,  is  found  to  contain  23  to 
25  per  cent,  of  gum — it  is  soluble  in  water.  The 
wax  is  of  a  harder  texture  and  very  brittle,  but  is 
never  found  in  a  proportion  of  more  than  one  per 
cent ;  oftentimes  less.  The  proportion  of  coloring 
matter  is  very  small. 

While  these  substances  are  in  the  silk,  it  is  stiff  and 
unpliable,  and  the  process  of  extracting  them  is  call- 
ed preparing  or  cleansing  silk.  Whenever  it  is  in- 
tended to  be  dyed,  the  silk  is  boiled  and  afterward 
gummed,  the  gum  having  an  affinity  for  the  dye.  But 
when  the  silk  is  to  remain  white,  it  is  simply  boiled 
and  the  gumming  omitted. 

To  ungum  silk,  many  skeins  should  be  united  to- 
gether, so  that  they  may  not  tangle  in  the  process. 
These  are  put  into  strong  suds.  From  fifteen  to 
twenty  pounds  of  soap  (some  use  thirty)  are  required 
for  every  hundred  pounds  of  silk.  The  soap  should 
be  thoroughly  dissolved  in  water,  over  a  gentle  fire, 
and  the  temperature  raised  nearly  to  boiling  heat, 
but  should  never  boil,  as  it  would  injure,  if  not  ruin, 


SILK.  177 

the  silk.  The  silk  is  now  put  into  the  suds,  there  to 
remain  until  the  gum  is  discharged,  which  may  be 
known  by  its  flexibility  and  softness  to  the  touch. 
The  silk  also  becomes  very  white.  When  this 
is  the  case,  the  skeins  should  be  wrung,  and  washed 
clean. 

There  is  a  second  process,  called  "  trtg-ging  ;^' 
but  I  have  never  found  it  necessary,  and  I  believe  it 
has  seldom  or  never  been  used  in  this  country. 

When  it  is  intended  that  silk  shall  be  dyed,  it 
should  be  alumned.  Dissolve  fifty  pounds  of  alum  in 
hot  water,  and  pour  it  into  a  vessel  containing  fifty 
gallons  or  more  of  cold  water,  and  stir  it  well,  other- 
wise chrystalization  will  take  place.  The  washed 
silk  is  immersed  in  this  solution  during  eight  or  ten 
hours.  Then  take  it  out,  wash  and  wring  it,  and  af- 
ter rinsing  it,  beetle  it  if  necessary.  Great  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  put  the  silk  in  while  the  wa- 
ter is  hot,  as  the  least  warmth  will  injure  the  lustre 
of  the  silk.  The  alum  should  be  good.  Some 
alum  is  combined  with  iron,  and  this  should  always  be 
avoided,  as  it  is  good  for  nothing,  and  if  used  would 
ruin  the  whole  lot  of  silk. 

When  it  is  desired  to  give  silk  brilliancy,  and  ren- 
der it  of  a  pure  azure  white,  it  is  subjected  to  a  pro- 
cess called  "  swZp/iwnng" ;"  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  fu- 
migated with  brimstone.  The  silk  is  hung  up  on 
poles  in  a  close  room,  the  poles  being  suspended 
above  by  cojpds,  about  seven  feet  from  the  floor.    If 


«6        ^  9IWC. 

there  is  a  hundred  pounds  of  silk  to  be  sulphured,  two 
pounds  of  brimstone  should  be  put  into  a  dish  and  set 
on  fire.  All  windows  and  doors  noust  be  shut,  and 
the  silk  left  exposed  to  the  funoes  for  fifteen  or  six- 
teen hours.  The  doors  and  windows  should  then  be 
opened  and  the  room  well  ventilated,  before  any  per- 
son attempts  to  enter,  when  the  silk  may  be  taken 
down  If  it  should  not  be  white  enough  for  the  pur- 
pose intended,  it  may  be  subjected  to  repeated  fumi- 
gations. 

MANUFACTURE   OF   SEWING   SILK. 

The  great  consumption  of  sewing  silk  in  this  coun- 
try, will  ever  render  the  manufacture  of  it  profitable ; 
pot  only  in  large  factories,  but  in  the  cottages  of  our 
country.  For  many  years  the  manufacture  of  sew- 
ing silk  has  been  carried  on  in  Connecticut,  and  the 
industrious  wives  and  daughters  of  that  State  have 
rendered  themselves  profitable  to  their  husbands  and 
fathers.  They  did  this  too,  with  the  spinning  wheel, 
having  none  of  the  machinery  now  used,  to  facilitate 
the  process.  The  Italians  seldom  use  the  best  silk  in 
making  sewings  or  twist,  whereas  in  the  above  State 
it  is  always  used.  So  far,  however,  our  people  have 
never  rivalled  the  sewing  silk  of  Italy,  for  their  raw 
silk  commands  a  higher  price  than  our  majoufactured 
article.  They  u§e  the  Piedmontese  reel,  and  all  their 
silk  is  reeled  upon  it.  There  are  reckoned  three 
ways  of  manufacturing  silk  iato  sewings  and  twist 


SILK.  179 

First,  by  means  of  the  common  reel  and  spinning 
wheel.  Second,  in  families,  by  the  aid  of  Brooks' 
Spinning  Machine.  Third,  in  factories  with  many 
complicated  machines.  The  process  in  factories  is 
as  follolvs :  The  silk  is  first  reeled  on  one  of  the 
reels  in  use,  and  afterwards  wound  off  on  bobbins, 
by,  a  machine  called  a  winding  frame.  It  is  useless 
to  describe  the  machine,  as  no  one  can  have  an  ade- 
quate idea  of  it  without  seeing  it.  The  silk,  howev- 
er, runs  from  swifts  over  rods  made  of  glass,  and  is 
run  upon  bobbins  by  a  transverse  motion.  The  ine- 
qualities are  taken  from  the  silk  by  a  machine  of  such 
a  structure  as  to  admit  the  silk  through  holes  in 
plates  of  iron,  and  from  them  it  passes  over  a  rod  of 
glass  to  other  bobbins.  Then  the  silk  is  spun  on  a 
spinning  frame,  the  spindles  of  which  are  said  to  turn 
eighteen  hundred  times  every  minute.  This  machine 
can  give  any  number  of  twists  to  the  inch. 

After  this,  the  doubling  of  the  silk  commences; 
sometimes  called  tramming.  There  is  a  machine  in 
use  on  which  the  thread  may  be  doubled  any  nunsber 
of  times,  according  to  the  size  of  the  thread  intend- 
ed. The  next  process  is  twisting,  or  technically 
called  throwsted.  A  machine  is  used  for  twisting, 
and  the  twist  is  afterwards  set  by  means  of  steam. 
It  is  steamed  as  it  comes  from  the  twisting  machine. 
After  it  is  steamed  it  is  boiled  in  soap  suds,  and  is 
now  ready  to  be  dyed. 

As  the  manufacture  of  silk  does  not  properly  be- 
long to  an  essay  on  the  culture  of  rilk,  I  &hall  say 


1«0  SILK. 

nothing  of  the  process  of  dyeing  the  various  colors, 
inasmuch  as  recipes  may  be  found  in  all  works  on 
the  subject. 

In  speaking  of  the  manufacture  of  sewing  silk  in 
families  in  Connecticut,  Mr.  Cobb  says—"  After  it  is 
reeled  from  the  cocoon,  it  is  immersed  for  a  few  mo- 
ments in  boiling  water,  taken  out,  put  on  swifts,  and 
spun  or  twisted  on  a  common  woollen  wheel,  begin- 
ning at  the  large  end  of  the  piece,  that  is  the  end 
which  was  reeled  first ;  and  when  it  becomes  small, 
which  is  the  case  when  one-half  or  two-thirds  is  run 
oflF,  the  small  end  of  another  piece  is  added  to  it,  and 
thus  they  are  twisted  together.  It  is  then  spooled  di- 
rectly off  the  spindle ;  a  sufficient  number  of  spools 
is  put  into  a  small  spool  frame  to  make  a  thread  of 
proper  size^  which  is  twisted  again  while  it  is  moist. 
It  is  reeled  again,  and  cleansed  by  boiling  in  strong 
suds  for  three  hours,  then  dried  and  colored.  Under- 
going this  process  it  shrinks  about  one-half  in  weight ; 
after  this  for  sewing  silk,  it  is  doubled,  twisted  and 
reeled  on  a  reel  two  yards  long,  and  is  divided  into 
skeins  of  twenty  threads  each,  as  the  statute  of  the 
State  requires.  If  it  be  calculated  for  twist,  it  is 
made  three  threaded,  twisted  and  done  up  into  sticks 
with  a  small  hand  machine,  and  is  then  ready  for  mar- 
ket." 

Brooka'  Silk  Spinning  Machine  is  highly  spoken 
of,  as  suitable  for  families  engaged  in  the  art  of  ma- 
king sewing  silk.     This  machine  takes  the  silk  from 


StLK.  181 

the  cocoon,  twists,  doubles  and  brings  forth  the  per- 
fect sewing  silk.  The  thread  is  remarkable  for  its 
even  texture,  for  its  brilliance  and  strength.  It  is  con- 
sidered superior  to  that  which  is  made  in  the  usual 
way  by  reeling.  The  machine  is  calculated  for  a 
double  or  single  thread,  and  prepares  it  for  the  loom 
or  sewing  silk.  There  is  one  great  advantage  in  using 
Brooks'  Silk  Spinner;  which  is,  that  it  takes  the 
fibres  from  the  cocoons  in  a  wet  gummy  state,  and 
unites  them  in  that  condition.  The  consequence  is, 
the  thread  is  united  in  one  solid  mass  before  it  has 
time  to  dry;  and,  consequently,  must  be  much  strong- 
er and  more  even.  A  premium  and  several  medals 
have  been  awarded  to  Mr.  Brooks  for  his  invention. 
In  a  letter,  published  in  one  of  the  papers  devoted  to 
the  silk  culture,  he  says — "I  do  not  reel  it  at  all  be* 
fore  it  is  twisted  into  warp  or  filling,  or  doubled  and 
twisted  into  sewing  silk,  or  for  other  uses,  of  any  size 
or  twist  that  may  be  wanted — perfectly  even,  firm, 
smooth,  and  strong,  as  any  that  can  be  produced  from 
any  part  of  the  world." 

The  period  is  rapidly  hastening  on,  when  our  man- 
ufactories will  rival,  and  perhaps  surpass,  in  their 
products  the  boasted  fabrics  of  Europe.  Mr.  Gay, 
from  Connecticut,  brought  into  the  middle  States  some 
samples  of  silks  woven  in  his  native  State,  which 
were  as  beautiful  as  any  I  ever  saw  from  the  far  famed 
looms  of  France  and  Italy* 

16 


182  SILK. 

LABOR,   PROFIT     AND    aUANTITY. 

The  labor  required  to  attend  to  a  given  number  of 
worms  is  not  easily  computed,  as  many  circumstances 
must  be  taken  into  the  account.  If  the  large  leaves 
of  the  Chinese  Mulberry  are  used,  instead  of  the 
small  leaves  of  the  White  Mulberry,  the  labor  will 
be  vastly  lessened.  Then  the  size  of  the  trees,  and 
their  distance  from  the  cocoonery  must  be  consider- 
ed ;  also  the  industry  of  the  persons  engaged. 

To  attend  to  500,000  worms,  one  person  will  an- 
swer for  the  first  week ;  two  persons  for  the  second ; 
four  for  the  third  ;  and  for  the  last  ten  or  twelve  days, 
about  eight  or  ten  persons  will  be  required.  These 
persons  may  be  women  and  boys. 

As  it  respects  the  profit  arising  from  the  culture  of 
silk,  many  estimates  have  been  made ;  some  of  w^hich 
have  been  entirely  too  high.  It  has  been  reduced  to 
certainty,  that  one  hundred  and  fifty  dollars  nett  profit 
may  be  realized  from  an  acre  of  full  grown  trees.  A 
certain  writer  estimates  the  product  of  one  million  of 
worms  at  500  pounds  of  silk.  I  should  say  400  lbs. 
would  come  nearer  to  the  truth.  Five  hundred 
pounds,  at  three  dollars  per  pound,  (after  deducting 
the  price  of  reeling,)  would  amount  to  $1600.  The 
expense  of  labor  would  be  about  $300,  which  would 
leave  $1200  nett  profit. 

Various  estimates  have  been  made  with  respect  to 
the  quantity  of  silk  produced  by  a  given  number  of 


SILK.  183 

worms.  The  second  year  that  I  cultivated  the  worm, 
only  a  hundred  and  ninety  cocoons  of  the  large  speck* 
led  Lombardy  worm  were  required  to  the  pound. 
M,  Bonafous  says,  that  two  hundred  and  fifty  will 
make  a  pound;  while  Mr.  D'Homergue  makes  three 
hundred  and  thirty  weigh  a  pound.  From  8000  co- 
coons Mr.  Cobb  reeled  three  pounds  of  silk.  Count 
de  Hazzi  informs  us,  that  from  eight  or  ten  pounds  of 
cocoons,  a  pound  of  reeled  silk  may  be  obtained. 
Eight  pounds  of  cocoons,  or  about  8000,  make  a  bush- 
el ;  from  which,  two  to  three  pounds  of  reeled  silk 
may  be  expected.  The  difference  in  these  calcula- 
tions is  owing  to  the  different  kinds  of  worms,  and 
the  manner  of  feeding.  The  cocoons  of  worms  of 
the  large  species,  are  three  times  as  large  as  those  of 
the  small  species. 

In  conclusion  I  must  observe,  that  putting  the  pro- 
fits of  the  silk  culture  at  the  lowest  estimate,  the  bu- 
siness is  still  profitable;  and  I  recommend  all  who 
are  properly  situated  to  embark  in  it.  I  have  had 
the  honor  of  introducing  the  culture  of  the  Mulberry, 
and  the  rearing  of  worms  into  a  part  of  the  state  of 
Delaware,  with  fine  prospects  of  success.  May  they 
reap  the  reward,  as  I  have  no  doubt  they  will,  of 
their  enterprize. 


CULTURE   OF  THE    BEET. 


That  the  beet  may  be  cultivated  to  advantage  for 
the  making  of  sugar,  is  now  reduced  to  a  certainty. 
The  French  have  carried  the  cultivation  of  the  beet 
and  the  manufacture  of  sugar  to  considerable  extent. 
So  early  as  1812,  according  to  a  Paris  newspaper, 
214  licenses  were  taken  out  for  the  manufacture  of 
sugar.  Messrs.  Ronaldson  and  Vaughn,  with  others, 
have  done  much  to  introduce  the  culture  of  the  sugar 
beet  into  the  United  States,  and  richly  deserve  the 
thanks  of  the  community  as  public  benefactors. 
Much  interest  is  excited  in  England  on  this  subject. 

In  this  essay  I  shall  endeavor  to  give  a  concise  ac- 
count of  the  mode  of  raising  the  beet,  and  of  the 
manner  in  which  sugar  is  made  from  it.  Sugar  is 
one  of  the  constituents  of  the  beet  root,  and  care 
should  be  taken  in  procuring  the  sugar,  to  destroy 
as  little  as  possible.  It  is  an  undeniable  fact,  that  in 
the  present  state  of  the  manufacture,  much  is  lost 
through  improper  management. 

In  cultivating  the  beet  and  manufacturing  sugar,  I 
would  recommend  the  manufacturer  to  make  only  the 
raw  sugar,  as  the  process  of  refining  is  very  difficult 
and  complex,  requiring  an  intimate  knowledge,  gained 


THE   BELT.  185 

by  long  experience.  Refining  commences  after  the 
raw  sugar  is  made,  and  the  process  lasts  six  or  eight 
months,  making  the  time  long  before  he  can  dispose 
of  his  product. 

The  beet  is  a  biennial  plant,  which  bears  seed  the 
second  year.  The  height  to  which  the  stalk  grows, 
is  from  two  to  four  or  five  feet.  The  beet  will  grow 
in  any  soil  where  the  potato  flourishes;  but  a  sandy 
soil  impregnated  with  vegetable  matter,  is  the  best. 
A  very  sandy  soil,  however,  should  not  be  chosen.  It 
is  said  that  small  beets  give  a  larger  proportion  of  su- 
gar than  large  ones.  Calcareous  soils  are  not  adapt- 
ed to  the  culture  of  the  beet,  neither  is  a  very  clay- 
ey soil;  but  marl  and  clay  improve  a  sandy  soil. 

The  ground  to  be  prepared  should  be  ploughed 
three  times ;  twice  in  the  winter  and  once  in  the 
spring.  Some  culturists,  however,  only  plough  twice. 
If  the  soil  is  sandy,  it  should  not  be  ploughed  deep ; 
but  in  a  clayey  soil  the  matter  is  reversed.  It  is,  I 
believe,  agreed  that  the  best  manure  is  that  in  which 
putrefaction  has  just  begun,  as  it  by  the  division  of  the 
soil  gives  the  roots  room  to  strike  freely  into  the 
earth.  The  ground  is  harrowed  twice,  and  rolled 
between  each  harrowing  after  the  last  time  it  is 
ploughed,  in  the  spring.  By  all  means  the  soil  should 
be  well  pulverized.  The  soil  should  be  damp  at  the 
time  of  planting  the  seed. 


16« 


J86  CtTLTURB-  or 

The  choice  of  seed  is  a  rery  great  matter,  as  or 
the  color  of  the  root  depends  the  color  of  the  sugar, 
and,  consequently,  its  value.     The  method  of  choos- 
ing proper  seed,  is  to  sow  some  of  them  in  a  pot  of 
vegetable  mould,  and  expose  it  to  a  heat  of  30  de- 
grees   Centigrade,  or  86   degrees   of   Fahrenheit's 
thermometer,  watering  the  earth  in  the  pot  from  time 
to  time  during  the  process.     Two  small  leaves  will 
shoot  up  from  each  seed  in  about  twelve  days,  which 
when  fully  blown  out,  should  be  rubbed  gently  be- 
tween two  fingers.     Should  the  sap,  thus  obtained 
from  the  leaves  by  the  rubbing,  colour  an  object  red^ 
the  seed  are  not  good,  and  should  by  no  means  be 
used.     The  reason  of  this  is,  that  sugar  made  from, 
white  roots  is  not  of  so  high  a  color  as  that  which 
comes  from  the  red  beet,  and  is  not  so  troublesome  to 
refine.     No  seed  should  be  used  but  those  of  the  Si- 
lesian  white  beet,  if  they  can  be  had.     No  other  rule 
to  discover  good  seed,  is  so  certain  as  the  abovo* 

The  French  people  practice  four  modes  of  sowing 
the  seed.  The  Jirst^  is  to  sow  them  in  beds,  in  nur- 
sery style.  The  second^  broadcast,  in  the  manner  of 
sowing  wheat.  The  third^  in  drills.  The  fourth^ 
by  a  machine  for  the  purpose.  A  very  small  space 
is  required  for  sowing  the  seed  in  beds,  for  so  soon  as 
they  grow  thick,  they  are  transplanted.  This  i^s 
done  about  a  month  or  six  weeks  after  germination. 


THE    BEET.  187 

The  labor  in  this  mode  is  great,  and  is  not  all  the  in- 
eonvenience ;  for  the  beets  are  injured  by  being  ex- 
posed, and  the  small  fibres  are  torn  asunder. 

The  second  mode,  also,  has  some  objections.  It  is 
very  easy  to  scatter  the  seed,  as  in  sowing  wheat ;. 
but  the  worst  of  the  matter  is,  that  this  mode  requires 
a  great  deal  of  seed.  In  some  countries  the  seed  sell 
at  an  enormous  price.  Seven  pounds  are  required 
for  an  acre  when  sown  broadcast.  There  is  one  very 
great  advantage  in  this  mode  of  sowing,  which  is, 
that  the  cultivator  can  cull  out  the  worst,  and  leave 
the  best  plants  growing,  by  which  he  will  be  certain 
of  an  excellent  crop. 

The  third  mode  of  sowing  is  very  good.  When 
the  seed  are  sown  in  drills,  a  harrow  is  used  with  very 
fine  teeth.  Women  in  France  sow  the  seed,  by  put- 
ting them  singly  into  the  furrow,  about  twelve  inches 
apart.  A  cross  harrow  is  then  used,  which  is  finer. 
An  acre  may  be  sowed  in  this  way,  by  four  women, 
which  is  a  very  great  saving. 

The  machine,  for  sowing  the  seed,,  is  considered 
the  most  simple  and  economical  of  all  the  modes 
enumerated.  I  will  endeavor  to  describe  it.  The 
machine  is  composed  of  a  hopper,  to  receive  the 
seed ;  the  bottom  is  shaped  like  a  cylinder  of  wood, 
with  cavities  in  the  surface  to  receive  the  seed,  the 
cavities  being  sixteen  inches  asunder.  Two  wheels 
support  the  machine,  and  in  those  wheels  are  teeth^ 
which  give  motion  to  the  cylinder.     The  cylinder  as^ 


188  CITLTURE  OF 

it  turns,  causes  the  seed  to  fall  in  its  cavities, 
and  then  drops  them  into  the  furrow,  at  the  regular 
distance  of  sixteen  inches.  The  furrows  are  formed 
by  shares,  fixed  in  front  of  the  machine.  There  are 
three  of  them,  and  they  plough  but  half  an  inch  deep. 
For  the  purpose  of  covering  up  the  seed,  there  are 
three  rollers  fixed  behind.  This  machine,  drawn  by 
one  horse,  will  sovr  several  acres  in  a  day,  attended 
by  a  man  or  boy,  whose  only  care  is  to  keep  the  hop- 
per supplied  with  seed,  and  the  holes  open. 

The  sower  should  be  particular  not  to  put  the  seed 
more  than  half  an  inch  deep  in  the  ground,  as  when 
too  deep  they  do  not  receive  the  influence  of  the  air, 
moisture  and  warmth,  which  are  absolutely  necessary 
to  germination.  The  seed  should  always,  when  prac- 
ticable, be  put  down  immediately  after  the  ground 
has  been  broken  up. 

Cultivators  are  at  variance  as  to  the  proper  time 
for  sowing  the  beet  seed,  but  it  has  been  found  to  be 
a  fact,  that  they  can  scarcely  be  sown  too  soon  in 
season,  for  the  simple  reason,  that  the  sooner  they  are 
sown  the  sooner  they  arrive  at  maturity,  and  the  soon- 
er the  manufacturer  may  begin  with  the  process  of 
making  sugar.  It  is  declared  to  be  a  fact,  that  sugar 
made  in  September  is  more  easily  extracted,  and  is  of 
a  lighter  and  more  beautiful  texture,  than  when  the 
process  is  delayed.  It  is  also  declared,  that  the  quan- 
tity obtained  from  the  roots  will  be  considerably 
greater,  if  sown  in  March,  than  if  sown  in  May. 


THE    BBET.  189 

The  time  for  sowing,  however,  ranges  from  March 
until  May,  and  even  June. 

CARE    IN  CULTIVATION. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  remove  all  grass  and 
noxious  weeds,  which  may  obstruct  the  growth  and 
materially  diminish  the  product.  Every  cleanli- 
ness must  be  observed,  during  the  whole  process  of 
growing  the  beet.  They  should  be  stirred  with  the 
hoe  three  times.  The  first  time  when  they  have 
three  or  four  leaves ;  the  second,  a  month  after ;  and 
the  third  a  month  after  the  second.  It  is  no  matter 
yvhether  there  are  weeds  or  not,  the  hoe  should  be 
used  to  loosen  the  surface  of  the  soil,  and  give  air  to 
the  fine  fibres  which  rise  towards  the  surface.  Never 
use  the  hoe  after  a  rain,  but  do  the  matter  judicious- 
ly, and  a  heavy  crop  is  inevitable.  One  thing  should 
be  particularly  observed ;  whenever  any  of  the 
plants  become  unhealthy,  they  should  be  taken  up, 
and  should  any  show  a  tendency  to  go  to  seed,  cut 
the  stalks  ofi*.  Never  tear  off  any  of  the  leaves  of 
the  healthy  beet,  for  every  leaf  taken  away  is  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  sugar  lost.  The  above  should  be  re- 
ligiously observed  by  the  cultivator.  % 

TAKING   UP   THE   BEET. 

The  proper;  tiine,  for  taking  up  beets,  may  be  known 
by  the  changing  of  the  leaves  from  a  bright  green  and 
i;ed  colour,  to  a  brownish  yellow,  and  when  they 


190  CULTURE   OF 

droop  and  wither.  When  this  is  seen,  they  should 
immediately  be  taken  up,  as  the  sugar  every  hour  they 
are  suffered  to  remain  in  the  ground  is  being  lost,  and 
saltpetre  replaced  instead.  A  spade  is  generally 
the  instrument  with  which  the  beet  is  taken  up,  and 
the  manner  of  doing  it,  is  to  make  a  deep  cut  in  front 
of  each  plant ;  then  to  bury  the  hand  under  the  same 
and  force  it  from  the  earth,  being  careful  not  to  bruise 
the  roots  by  knocking  one  against  another.  The 
beets  are  all  laid  on  the  ground  in  one  direction,  that 
is  their  roots,  and  then  with  a  spade  the  stalks  are 
seperated  from  the  roots.  This  must  absolutely  be 
done,  or  the  plant  will  continue  to  grow,  and  a  great 
loss  of  sugar  be  the  consequence.  But  the  plan  of 
cutting  off  the  roots  with  a  spade  is  condemned  by 
many  culturists,  and  they  contend  that  it  should  be 
done  with  the  hand.  The  danger  in  bruising  them  is 
this ;  fermentation  ensues,  and,  of  course,  whenever 
and  wherever  this  takes  place,  the  sugar  is  lost. 
Beets  should  always  be  dug  in  dry  weather,  as  they 
often  heat,  as  it  is  called,  in  wet  weather,  and  fer- 
mentation ensues. 

The  next  thing  in  order,  is  to  preserve  the  beets. 
Some  place  them  in  a  cellar,  but  it  is  said  that  a  pit  is 
better.  The  size  of  the  pit  of  course  must  be  ac- 
cording to  the  quantity  of  beets.  It  is  said  that  the 
best  form  and  size  is  twelve  feet  long,  three  feet  wide 
at  bottom,  and  thirty-one  inches  deep.  In  this  pit 
may  be  stowed  from  two  to  three  thousand  pounds 


THE   BEET.  191 

of  beets.  In  forming  this  reservoir,  the  dirt  should 
be  thrown  out  on  both  sides,  so  that  when  the  beets 
are  placed  therein  the  earth  may  easily  be  heaped 
over  them.  A  coat  of  dirt  three  inches  thick,  is  suf- 
ficient. Be  particular  that  this  pit  or  reservoir  be  lo- 
cated where  the  springs  cannot  rise.  Occasionally 
the  beets  should  be  examined,  for  one  rotten  one  may 
ruin  a  large  quantity.  Some  cover  the  beets  with 
straw,  but  this  practice  is  condemned,  as  the  roots  are 
more  apt  to  ferment  or  rot. 

When  first  taken  up,  be  careful  not  to  suffer  the 
beets  to  lie  long  exposed  on  the  ground  to  moisture 
and  air.  They  are  equally  injured  by  both  extremes 
of  heat  and  cold,  and  even  when  subjected  to  a  tem- 
perature, if  damp,  of  5Q  degrees  of  Fahrenheit,  the 
vinous  fermentation  will  ensue,  and  a  loss  of  sugar 
be  the  consequence.  So,  on  the  contrary,  the  beet 
freezes  very  easily,  so  much  so  that  large  quantities 
have  been  known  to  freeze  when  the  thermometer 
was  only  tw^o  or  three  degrees  below  the  freezing 
point.  When  once  frozen,  it  is  entirely  useless  to 
attempt  to  thaw  them  for  the  purpose  of  making  su- 
gar, for  they  are  then  found  to  be  but  a  black  and  rot- 
ten mass.  So  hard  are  they  when  frozen,  that  the 
instrument  is  blunted  wnth  which  it  is  attempted  to 
cut  them. 

PRODUCTION    OP   SEED. 

The  seed  of  the  beet  are  only  produced  the  second 
year,  being,  as  was  observed  before,  a  biennial  plant. 


IQ2  CULTURE    OF 

When  beets  are  gathered,  those  should  be  selected 
which  are  intended  for  the  production  of  seed  the 
next  year.  The  following  are  the  appearances  by 
which  good  beets  for  seed  are  chosen : 

1st.  Choose  those  which  are  perfectly  healthy. 

2d.  Of  middle  size,  thickness  and  length. 

Sd.  Be  particular  that  they  are  not  forked. 

4th.  They  should  be  perfectly  white. 

A  portion  of  the  stalk  and  the  leaves  of  the  beets 
you  have  chosen  for  seed,  should  be  cut  off;  but  care 
must  be  exercised  not  to  cut  down  to  the  neck,  as 
that  might  injure,  if  not  destroy,  the  germinating  pow- 
er. The  next  process  is  to  pack  them  down  in  sand, 
and  place  them  in  a  cellar,  or  some  other  proper  place. 
In  the  beginning  of  spring,  say  about  the  first  of 
March  or  April,  they  should  be  set  out^  or  planted  up 
to  the  neck,  and  about  two  feet  six  inches  apart 
Give  them  room  and  nourishment,  and  they  will  put 
forth  luxuriantly,  growing  four  or  five  feet  high, 
and  will  need  propping.  About  the  fifteenth  or  twen* 
tieth  of  September  the  seed  will  ripen,  when  the 
stalks  should  be  cut  off,  several  of  them  tied  togeth* 
er,  and  hung  up  where  the  air  will  circulate  freely 
through  them.  When  they  are  perfectly  dry,  you 
should  strip  them,  which  is  done  with  the  hand.  The 
seed  should  now  be  spread  upon  a  board  and  dried  by 
a  fire,  or  in  the  sun.  After  this  process,  the  chaff 
should  be  extracted,  and  the  clean  seed  put  away  in 
bags,  where  no  mice  or  insects  can  injure  them.  Each 


THE  *BEB¥.'^  193 

beet,  it  has  been  computed,  will  give  from  three  to 
six  ounces  of  the  best  seed.  No  cultivator  should 
ever  sow  seed  that  are  more  than  five  years  old,  as 
they  become  shrivelled  and  rotten,  and  lose  their 
vegetative  power.  It  is  well  known  that  the  seed 
of  the  white  beet  will  often  produce  the  red  or  yel- 
low, and  it  is  said  that  this  may  be  corrected  by 
changing  the  soil  from  clay  to  sand,  and  vice  versa. 

Note. — Beets  should  never  be  cultivated  on  land 
newly  cleared,  nor  even  on  land  that  has  been  covered 
with  timber  within  several  years;  for  it  has  been 
proven  by  actual  experiment,  that  such  land  is  entire- 
ly unsuited  to  such  cultivation.  Neither  should  beets 
be  grown  for  any  number  of  years  successively, 
though  the  land  should  be  ever  so  well  suited  to  the 
production.  "  Many  farmers  in  France  pursue  the 
following  rotation:  the  first  year  wheat,  the  second 
beets,  the  third  clover,  and  so  on,  wheat,  beets  and 
clover  in  succession.  When  beets  are  to  follow 
wheat,  the  ground  should  have  two  deep  ploughings, 
as  it  must  be  so  hard  as  to  require  it.  Some  plant  po- 
tatoes the  first  year,  beets  the  second,  oats  or  wheat 
the  third,  and  clover  the  fourth.  There  is,  however, 
a  sugar  maker  at  Arras,  who  has  grown  beets  on  the 
same  ground  for  fifteen  successive  years,  taking  care 
only  every  year  to  change  the  manure  or  dressing ; 
this,  however,  is  not  a  practice  to  be  followed — cer- 
tain growers  have  been  ruined  by  it.'^ 

17 


194  BEET   ROOT   SUGAR. 


ON  MAKING  BEET  ROOT  SUGAR. 

The  second  part  of  the  subject  treats  of  making 
the  sugar  from  the  beets,  the  manner  of  cultivating 
which  has  been  shown.  The  object  here  is  to  show 
how  the  greatest  quantity  and  the  best  quality  can  be 
produced. 

It  has  been  a  custom  with  those  in  France  who 
make  their  own  raw  sugar  to  refine  it ;  but  experi- 
ence proves  that  this  is  a  very  bad  plan,  as  it  requires 
a  long  acquaintance  with  the  art,  and  a  considerable 
knowledge  of  chymistry.  But  this  is  not  all:  the 
great  length  of  time  required  should  be  a  sufficient 
barrier,  for  with  the  production  of  the  raw  sugar  and 
the  process  of  refining,  fifteen  months  at  least  must 
elapse,  before  he  can  realize  the  reward  of  his 
labor. 

Sugar,  I  need  not  say,  for  it  is  well  known,  is  one 
of  the  constituents  of  the  beet;  and  the  great  art  in 
extracting  it  from  the  root,  is  to  choose  some  process 
by  which  the  largest  quantity  can  be  obtained  and  the 
least  portion  destroyed ;  for  it  is  conceded  on  all 
hands,  that  a  portion  is  lost  in  the  present  imperfect 
state  of  the  art.  The  time,  however,  is  rapidly  ap- 
proaching,, when  like  that  of  silk,  knowledge  will  be 
disseminated  on  the  culture  of  the  beet,  and  not  only 
the  culture,  but  the  manufacture  of  sugar.  When 
the  cultivation  and  manufacture  of  silk  and  sugar 


BEET   ROOT   SUGAR.  195 

shall  have  been  brought  lo  perfection,  millions  of  mo- 
ney will  be  saved  to  the  country,  and  employment 
given  to  thousands  who  are  now  entirely  unproduc- 
tive. I  shall  proceed  to  describe  the  manufacture  in 
the  order  in  which  the  manufacturer  proceeds.  And 
first, 

TO    CLEAN    THE   BEETS. 

This  work  is  done  by  women  and  children.  The 
beets  should  be  either  washed  or  scraped.  The  in- 
strument used  for  scraping,  is  a  knife  with  a  wide 
blade  and  nine  or  ten  inches  long.  The  women  and 
children  now  seat  themselves  around  the  pile  of  beets, 
and  each  one  taking  a  single  beet  in  the  hand,  scrapes 
every  particle  of  earth  and  other  matter  off.  The 
very  large  beets  are  cut  into  two  or  four  pieces,  after 
being  scraped,  to  render  them  of  a  proper  size  to  en- 
ter the  rasp.  The  incision,  however,  should  always 
be  longitudinally  or  lengthways.  The  process  of 
cleaning  is  very  necessary,  and  should  be  done  neat- 
ly. Manufacturers  are  at  variance  with  respect  to 
the  necessity  of  washing  the  beets;  some  contend 
that  it  is  absolutely  necessary,  while  others  declare 
that  a  rough  brush,  after  the  knife,  is  sufficient.  But 
it  is  my  opinion  drawn  from  correct  premises,  that 
water  is  necessary  to  a  thorough  cleaning,  though  the 
quantity  necessary  for  a  manufactory  is  not  so  great 
as  some  imagine.  In  fact  the  quantity  required  is  but 
small,  and.  can  readily  be  obtained  in  any  manufacto- 
ry. 


196  BEET   ROOT  SUGAR. 

The  process  of  cleaning  should  always  be  carried 
on  in  the  vicinity  of  the  press  and  rasping  apparatus, 
and  the  enclosure  where  it  is  carried  on,  should  be 
sufficient  to  contain  a  supply  for  the  establishment  for 
five  days.  The  clean  beets  should  be  placed  in  bas- 
kets and  conveyed  to  the  rasp,  where  they  are  left, 
and  empty  baskets  taken  back.  It  is  said  that  four 
women  skilled  in  the  business,  will  clean  and  carry 
six  or  seven  tons  in  twelve  hours.  The  next  pro- 
cess is 

THE     OPERATION    OF    RASPIN&. 

There  have  been  many  mills  invented  in  France, 
for  the  purpose  of  rasping  the  beet ;  but  universal 
consent,  I  believe,  has  declared  in  favor  of  the  one 
invented  by  Moiard.  The  following  is  a  description 
of  the  machine.  A  cast  iron  cylinder  is  set  round 
with  rough  blades  like  saws,  zigzag  and  jagged. 
These  tooth-like  processes  saw,^  tear  and  squeeze  tlie 
juice  from  the  beet.  An  author,  whose  name  I  do 
not  recollect,  says  that  Molard's  mill  will  operate  on 
three  or  four  tons  of  beets  in  an  hour,  with  the  labor 
of  two  men. 

The  beet  is  of  a  very  firm  and  solid  consistence, 
so  much  so  that  the  juice  cannot  well  be  extracted  by 
pressure  alone,  on  account  of  its  being  contained  in 
a  great  many  little  cells,  and  hence  it  is  necessary 
that  the  rasp  should  break  these  in  order  to  obtain 
the  juice.     The  process  of  rasping  requires  niore  ex- 


BEET   ROOl?   SUGAR.  197 

peditioni  than  any  other  in  the  manufacture  of  sugar 
from  the  beet.  The  quantity  rasped  at  any  one  time 
should  never  exceed  that  which  is  required  for  imme- 
diate use,  as  the  pulp  is  powerfully  operated  on  by 
the  atmospheric  air,  so  much  so,  that  in  half  an  hour 
a  great  change  is  effected.  The  rasp  and  the  press 
should  go  together  in  their  operation,  the  one  but  a 
little  in  advance  of  the  other.  There  is  another 
thing  which  should  be  particularly  mentioned.  In  all 
cases  the  rasp  should  be  kept  perfectly  clean,  as  any 
particles  of  pulp  left  sticking  to  it  will  ferment,  and 
injury  must  ensue. 

It  is  expensive  to  work  the  rasp  mill  by  human 
power,  and,  therefore,  oxen  are  better  suited  than 
even  horses,  because  they  are  kept  with  less  cost  than 
horses,  and  will  eat  the  pulp,  which  horses  will  not. 
Some  manufacturers  in  France,  prefer  wind  power  to 
either  that  of  water  or  steam,  on  account  that  water 
cannot  always  be  obtained  in  level  countries,  and  the 
expensiveness  of  steam,  when  not  located  in  a  coal 
region.  But  there  is  one  great  objection  to  wind 
power,  which  is,  that  it  is  very  uncertain  and  irregu- 
lar. 

TO   EXTRACT  THE  SUGARi. 

Sugar  is  extracted  from  the  pulp  only  by  pressure. 
The  greater  the  pressure  the  greater  the  quantity  ob- 
tained from  ai  certain  quantum  of  pulp,  yet  it  is  im- 
possible  with  the  greatest  knawa  pressure  that  the  hy- 


198  BEET  ROOT   8UGAB. 

draulic  press  can  produce,  to  obtain  ^11,  for  the  p«lp 
will  renjain  nooist.  It  is  a  question,  whether  the  last 
portions  of  juice  are  worth  the  trouble  of  obtaining 
them.  The  first  juice  runs  from  the  bags  without 
pressure^  the  second  with  a  light  pressure,  the  third 
with  a  heavy  pressure ;.  and  it  remains  to  be  proven, 
whether  the  juice  obtained  by  a  very  heavy  pressure^ 
is  worth  the  cost  of  the  labor.  The  last  juice  ob- 
tained cannot  be  more  than  eight  or  ten  percent. 
This  would,  of  course,  in  a  great  measure  depend 
upon  the  power  used ;  for  steam,  wind,  water,  horse, 
or  ox  power,  are  all  cheaper  than  the  labor  of  msin, 
though  it  is  so  frequently  used.  A  hydraulic  press, 
of  the  power  of  ten  tons,^wiU  extract  seventy  per 
cent,  of  juice  at  first;  but  when  the  power  is 
doubled,  eight  per  cent,  is  about  the  portion  extract- 
ed, which  will  not  certainly  pay  for  the  labor. 

The  quantity  of  syrup  to  be  obtained  from  a  given 
weight  of  beets,  depends  njore  upon  the  rasp  than 
the  press.  The  finer  they  are  rasped  the  more  juice 
i§  obtained,  but  all  beets  do  not  give  the  same  pro- 
portion; for  it  has  been  found  by  actual  experi- 
ment, that  those  beets  which  contain  the  most  sugar^ 
yield  the  smallest  portion  of  juice.  It  is  the  quanti- 
ty of  water  which  makes  up  the  superabundance  of 
juice,  and  so  exactly  is  this  pointed  out  by  the  areom- 
eter, that  manufacturers  can  ascertain  how  much  su«» 
gar  can  be  obtained  from  a  given  quantity  of  roots. 
Thq  operation  of  pressing  should  be  carrietj  on  ^ 
rapidly  as  possiblCt 


BEET    ROOT   SUGAR.  19S 

A  great  many  presses  have  been  used  for  the  pur- 
pose of  obtaining  the  juice  from  the  beet,  as  the 
wedge,  the  lever,  the  screw,  cylinder  and  the  hydrau- 
lic press.  Universal  consent  appears  to  give  the 
preference  to  the  hydraulic,  as  it  is  more  powerful^ 
and,  consequently,  more  expeditious;  for  it  extracts 
all  the  juice  that  is  worth  the  labor  to  obtain,  at  one 
operation.  There  are  certain  articles  which  belong 
to  the  press.     These  are 

1st.  The  bags  which  are  to  hold  the  pulp. 

2d.  A  wide  reservoir  in  which  the  bags  are  pre- 
pared. 

3d.  Hurdle,  made  of  osier  or  hemp. 

4th.  A  cistern  to  hold  juice,  provided  with  a  pump 
and  pipes. 

The  pulp  bags  should  be  of  very  strong  material, 
such  as  canvas,  or  stout  Irish  linen.  The  canvas 
should  be  of  such  a  fabric  as  to  suffer  the  juice  to 
run  through  it  freely,  and  yet  retain  the  pulp.  The 
bags,  when  in  use,  should  be  changed  in  about  every 
ten  or  twelve  hours,  and  then  washed  in  hot  water. 
The  size  of  the  bags  is  governed  entirely  by  the 
power  of  the  press,  and  the  number  is  regulated  by 
the  number  of  presses  in  operation.  Twenty-five 
bags  is  called  in  France,  v/a  jeu  de  $acs^  or  a  set ; 
which  set  is  sometimea  used  with  one  press.  Twa 
sets  will  be  sufficient  for  a  press  that  is  kept  in  ope-, 
ration  through  the  day,  and  three  sets  if  the  press  is. 
k;ept  in  operatioa  day  and  night. 


SOO  BBfif  Rd(yr  ^uaAR. 

The  reservoir  in  which  the  bags  are  prepared, 
should  be  of  the  following  dimensions,  admitting 
that  the  hurdles  are  2  feet  wide,  and  2|  in  length. 
The  width  should  be  2^  feet,  the  length  61,  and  the 
depth  1  foot.  The  reservoir  should  be  made  of 
strong  wood,  and  lined  with  metal,  such  as  copper. 
It  should  be  stationed  between  the  rasp  and  the  press, 
and  the  end  near  the  cistern  to  receive  the  pulp. 
A  cock  should  be  fixed  in  one  corner  of  it,  and  rails 
should  be  fixed  round  it  to  hang  the  bags  on.  The 
reservoir  must  be  raised  a  few  inchjes  from  the  floor, 
for  the  sake  of  convenience. 

The  hurdles  are  made  of  very  strong  osier,  and 
serve  to  support  the  bags  under  the  press.  The  size 
of  them  is  regulated  by  the  face  of  the  press.  The 
hurdle,  in  its  structure,  resembles  the  hamper,  and  is 
easily  made  by  a  basket  maker.  There  should  be 
the  same  number  of  hurdles  that  there  are  of  bags, 
with  the  exception  of  ^ne.  They  should  be  washed 
with  lime  water  every  twelve  hours,  in  the  reservoir 
mentioned  above.  There  should  be  more  sets  than 
one,  that  they  may  be  renewed  or  changed  every  ten 
or  twelve  hours. 

The  cistern,  like  the  reservoir,  should  be  made  of 
strong  wood,  and  lined  with  copper.  The  cistern  is 
intended  to  contain  the  juice  as  it  runs  forth  from  the. 
press,  from  whence  it  is  carried  to  the  clarifying 
copper.  Pipes  should  lead  from  the  press  to  the  cis^ 
tern,  and  a  pump  is  necessary  to  throw  up  thejuic^ 


BEET   ROOT   SUGAR.  001 

into  the  clarifying  copper.  The  cistern  must  of 
course  be  situated  lower  down  than  the  press,  so  that 
the  juice  by  a  common  law  of  gravitation,  shall  flow 
from  the  press  into  it.  It  should  always  be  kept  per- 
fectly clean.  The  shape  of  the  cistern  is  of  no  mo- 
ment at  all,  and  the  size  depends  upon  the  mode  of 
working.  If  there  is  one  defacation  in  twelve  hours, 
the  cistern  should  be  about  half  the  size  of  the  defa- 
cating  copper ;  but  if  there  are  two  or  three  defaca- 
tions  in  the  same  time,  the  cistern  should  be  of  the 
same  capacity. 

DEFACATION. 

The  juice,  just  as  it  comes  from  the  press,  con- 
tains all  the  matter  that  is  soluble  in  the  beet,  such  as 
sugar,  water,  &c.,  as  will  be  enumerated  hereafter. 
Now  it  is  very  plain,  that  if  the  juice  were  compo- 
sed of  nothing  but  sugar,  combined  with  water,  it 
would  be  no  trouble  whatever  to  evaporate  the  water 
and  leave  the  sugar  behind ;  but  then  there  are  fo- 
reign substances  combined  with  the  sugar,  which  pre- 
vent the  ready  evaporation  of  the  water,  and  the  crys- 
talizationof  the  sugar.  From  this  cause  defacation  is 
necessary,  and  this  is  nothing  more  than  mixing  with 
the  juice  certain  substances  which  have  an  affinity  for 
these  foreign  substances,  and  will  precipitate  them. 
These  substances  or  agents,  should  be  of  such  a  na- 
ture as  not  to  affect  the  quality  of  the  sugar,  but  go 
off  with  the  refuse  sijibstance|.    The  suhstance^  nfiio3t 


6BET  kOOT  SUGAR. 

geaerally  used  for  this  purpose  are  sulphuric  acid 
and  lime,  great  care  in  the  use  of  which  is  recom- 
mended. Heat  IS  necessary  in  defacating  the  juice, 
and  for  this  purpose  boilers  are  necessary. 

The  boilers  should  be  made  of  copper,  and  of  a 
circular  shape.  Their  size  should  correspond  with 
that  of  the  establishment,  varying  from  two  to  five 
or  six  hundred  gallons.  Some  manufacturers  prefer 
having  a  greater  number  of  small  ones,  ranging  in 
size  from  40  to  50  gallons.  Every  operation,  in  ma- 
king sugar  from  the  beet,  should  be  carried  on  with 
the  utmost  despatch.  The  rasping,  as  observed  be- 
fore, should  go  on  rapidly,  as  heat  is  generated,  and, 
tjonsequently,  fermentation  takes  place  in  a  propor- 
tionate degree,  by  which  a  corresponding  portion  of 
sugar  is  lost.  Heat  acts  powerfully  on  ail  organic 
substances  held  in  solution  by  water.  Now  the  long- 
er the  time  between  the  rasping  and  the  press,  and 
between  the  press  and  the  boilers,  the  greater  the 
fermentation,  and,  ccmsequ^ently,  the  greater  the 
loss  of  sugar.  Many  times  through  inattention,  6v 
other  causes,  this  is  so  great  that  the  sugar  cannot  be 
seperated  at  all.  Therefore,  it  is  necessary  that  thfe 
boilers  should  be  filled  as  rapidly  as  possible,  and  k 
number  of  rasps  and  presses  should  be  kept  in  oper- 
ation, in  proportion  to  the  size  of  the  boilers  used. 
If  the  boiler  holds  600  gallons,  and  it  is  desired  to  fill 
it  with  juice  in  two  hours,  four  tons  of  rodts  must  be  ^ 
rasped  and  pressed.  To  perform  this  in  the  givea 
time,  will  require  three  rasping  mills  and  five  presses. 


BEET   ROOT  SUGAR.  204 

Many  are  of  opinion,  that  boilers  of  the  middle 
size  are  best  suited  to  the  purpose;  for  instance, 
such  as  will  hold  from  eighty  to  ninety  gallons.  It 
is  believed  that  two  of  these  would  perform  the  same 
as  one  holding  5  or  600  gallons ;  for  while  the  pro- 
cess of  defacationis  being  carried  on  in  one,  the  oth- 
er is  undergoing  the  process  of  precipitation. 

AH  boilers,  intended  for  the  process  of  defacation, 
should  be  in  height  equal  to  its  diameter.  Room 
should  be  allowed  in  the  boiler  for  the  operation  of 
boiling,  as  for  instance,  if  the  boiler  is  to  contain 
200  gallons  of  juice,  it  should  be  made  large  enough 
to  hold  240  gallons.  The  boiler  should  be  stationed 
at  such  a  height,  that  the  syrup  may  be  easily  run  off 
into  the  boilers  for  evaporation.  The  temperature 
ought  never  to  rise  above  212  degrees  Fahrenheit.  If 
the  boiler  is  36  inches  both  in  height  and  in  diameter, 
the  grate  should  be  23  inches  in  length,  and  1 5  inches  in 
breadth,  and  should  be  made  of  cast  iron,  having  ten 
bars.  The  necessary  apparatus  belonging  to  a  defa- 
cating  boiler,  are  as  follows  : 

1st.  An  areometer  and  a  thermometer. 

2d.  A  bin  and  buckets  for  lime. 

3d.  A  pair  of  scales  with  weights  for  weighing 
lime. 

4th.  A  copper  or  lead  measure  for  sulphuric  acid. 

5tb.  A  spoon  plated  to  examine  the  juice,  and  a 
saucer  for  experiment. 

6th.  A  wooden  spatula  to  stir  the  syrup  in  the  boiler. 


204  BEET  ROOT  SUGAA. 

7th.  A  funnel  and  a  filter, 
8th.  A  skimming  ladle. 

OF  THE  THERMOMETER  AND  AREOMETER. 

The  areometer  of  Beaume  should  in  all  cases  be  us- 
ed in  preference  to  any  other.  The  thermometer  in 
defacation,  is  useful  in  ascertaining  the  temperature, 
and  thus  to  know  when  to  put  in  the  agents  which 
produce  clarification.  It  should  be  frequently  put  in- 
to the  liquid  while  clarification  is  going  on. 

The  areometer  should  have  a  handle  of  wood,  and 
a  case  made  of  tin.  When  the  syrup  is  to  be  weigh- 
ed, it  is  drawn  up  in  the  tin  case,  holding  it  by  the 
handle.  The  syrup  should  always  be  at  the  same  tem- 
perature when  examined,  and  it  should  be  taken  as  it 
exudes  from  the  press,  plunged  by  the  aid  of  the  tin 
case  in  water,  to  reduce  the  temperature  to  55  de- 
grees of  Fahrenheit.  The  specific  gravity  is  dimin- 
ished if  weighed  while  it  is  boiling,  and  consequently 
a  difference  is  found  more  or  less,  of  4  degrees.  The 
specific  gravity  is  diminished  by  the  expansion  of  the 
fluid  by  heat. 

The  lime,  which  is  used  in  the  defacation  of  the  sy- 
rup, should  be  unslacked.  It  should  be  weighed 
while  in  that  stale,  slacked ,  and  then  water  enough  ad- 
ded to  bring  it  to  the  consistence  of  cream.  A  bin  or 
cistern  is  used  for  this  purpose,  which  is*  of  a  circular 
shape,  with  a  cover.  The  lime  should  be  sifted  very 
fine,  and  all  the  lumps  should  be  taken  out.     M.  Du- 


BEET  ROOT   SUGAR.  205 

brunfaut  says,  the  lime  should  not  be  slacked  until  it 
is  weighed. 

The  sulphuric  acid  in  its  natural  state  is  too  strong, 
and  requires  five  or  six  times  the  quantity  of  water 
before  it  can  be  used.  The  mixture  is  made  in  buck- 
ets made  of  wood,  with  copper  hoops.  No  metallic 
vessel  save  a  golden  one,  and  that  is  too  expensive, 
can  be  used  ;  as  the  acid  would  decompose  the  me- 
tal, and  form  a  sulphate  of  iron,  of  copper,  &c. 

An  instrument  IS  necessary  to  stir  the  syrup  in  the 
boiler,  and  this  should  be  a  round  stick,  at  the  end  of 
which  should  be  fastened  a  round  boaid  one  foot  in 
diameter,  which  should  be  full  of  holes 

The  next  things  enumerated,  are  a  plated  spoon 
and  a  saucer,  which  are  for  the  purpose  of  examining 
the  syrup.  The  spoon  must  always  be  clean  and 
bright,  as  the  clarifier  can  more  easily  tell  when  the 
process  is  complete.  The  saucer  should  .be  white, 
as  it  is  used  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  when  the 
syrup  has  a  superabundance  of  alkali  and  acid. 

The  skimmer  should  be  eight  inches  in  diameter. 
It  is  not  always  necessary  to  skim  the  boiling  syrup,, 
and  especially  when  precipitation  is  going  on,  for 
then  the  scum  prevents  the  fluid  from  cooling  too  rap- 
idly. 

The  filtre  should  be  made  of  coarse  cloth  or  can- 
vas. 

I  shall  now  give  M.  Houdart's  method  or  process 
of  defacation,  in  a  quotation  from  a  work  on  the  man- 
18 


206  BBEf  Boot  SUGAK. 

ufacture  of  beet  sugar.  "  Suppose,"  says  the  atr- 
thor,  "that  1 14  gallons  of  juice  are  to  be  clarified. 
The  boiler  being  charged,  and  the  fire  burning,  the 
thermometer  is  placed  in  it,  and  should  be  kept  there 
till  it  amounts  to  60  or  65  degrees  (le?""  or  US'"  of 
Fahrenheit.)  During  this  interval,  eighty-eight 
pounds  of  lime  slacked  and  sifted,  are  weighed  out; 
four  or  five  bags  are  then  similarly  prepared,  each 
bag  containing  seven  pounds  of  lime.  This  done, 
the  eighty-eight  pounds  of  lime  are  put  into  a  wood- 
en vessel,  where  they  are  mixed  with  clear  w^ater,  till 
they  become  like  milk.  This  mixture  is  poured  into 
the  boiler  when  the  temperature  is  above  60  or  65 
degrees  of  Reaumur.  The  whole  is  then  briskly 
stirred  for  some  minutes,  in  order  to  incorporate  the 
lime  well  with  the  liquor.  Before  the  lime  is  added, 
a  thick  scum  will  rise  on  the  surface.  Lime  often 
destroys  this  scum,  or  at  any  rate,  it  is  suspended  in 
the  liquid  by  agitating  it  when  the  lime  is  added. 
When  thoroughly  mixed,  some  minutes  should  elapse 
before  the  full  effect  will  be  produced ;  then,  with 
a  bright  spoon,  take  a  little  of  the  liquor,  and  exam- 
ine it  carefully  ;  if  the  quantity  of  lime  be  sufficient, 
the  juice  will  exhibit  a  number  of  clots,  or  particles 
in  suspension,  which  will  soon  settle  to  the  bottom  of 
the  spoon,  leaving  the  upper  part  of  the  liquor  per- 
fectly clear  and  transparent,  and  more  or  less  of  an 
tmber  color.  If,  instead  of  this,  the  lumps  are  very 
much  divided,  and  only  swim  in  the  liquor  without 


BEET    ROOT   SUGAR. 


207 


settling  to  the  bottom,  even  for  several  seconds,  and 
<if  the  juice  remains  of  a  thick  milky  color,  it  is  a 
\proof  that  more  lime  is  wanted. 

"One  of  the  little  parcels  of  seven  pounds  is  then 
mixed  with  the  water,  poured  into  the  boiler,  and 
-well  stirred  as  before.  The  juice  is  then  again  exam- 
ined with  a  spoon,  and  if  the  symptoms  are  still  not 
so  favorable  as  they  might  be,  another  seven  pounds 
are  added,  and  so  on,  seven  pounds  at  each  time  till 
defacation  of  the  whole  is  complete. 

'^Eighty-eight  pounds  of  lime  to  114  gallons  of 
juice,  may  always  be  used  with  safety.  It  is  in  fact 
the  minimum  dose  which  ought  to  be  applied.  The 
quantity  varies  with  the  quality  of  the  beet  root,  and 
•the  period  of  the  season  when  applied.  Thus,  at  the 
beginning  of  the  season,  when  the  roots  are  rich  and 
full  of  sugar,  the  greater  will  be  the  proportion  of 
lime  necessary.  The  object  of  the  lime  being  to 
precipitate  certain  substances  which  impede  the  for- 
mation of  sugar,  it  should,  of  course,  be  added  in 
quantities  adequate  to  the  amount  of  these  substan- 
ces; for,  experience  seams  to  show,  that  as  the  quan- 
tity of  sugar  increases,  so  will  also  these  extraneous 
matters.  Thus,  a  firm,  solid  beet  root  requires  more 
than  a  watery  root,  and  vice  versa, 

*'  On  the  whole  the  safiest  way  is  to  begin  with  little 
enough  of  lime,  for  it  is  very  easy  to  add  more 
from  time  to  time,  as  above  directed.  But  it  is  not 
to  be  inferred  from  hence,  that,  on  the  wholcy  a  small 


208  BEET  ROOT   SUGAR. 

quantity  is  preferable  to  a  larger.  So  far  as  is  this 
from  being  the  case,  that  it  is  considered  better  to  use 
too  much  than  too  little;  for  though  an  excess  of  this 
alkali  is  prejudical  to  the  sugar,  it  is  always  less  so 
than  an  insufficient  quantity.  The  observations  of 
the  workmen  cannot  be  too  frequently  taken  during 
the  process  of  defacating.  A  clear  liquor  and  a 
perfect  precipitation  are  the  main  objects  to  be  ac- 
complished. 

*'  The  beet  juice,  when  it  comes  from  the  press,  is 
of  a  milky  hue  and  yet  dingy.  When  heated  the 
scum  and  froth  rise;-  but  as  soon  as  the  lime  is  added, 
the  black  dirty  color  disappears  by  degrees,  and 
abundance  of  flakes  are  seen  in  the  liquor.  These 
flakes  are  usually  of  a  yellowish  grey  color ;  when 
the  proportion  of  lime  is  sufficient,  they  seperate 
from  the  liquid  and  sink  to  the  bottom.  When  arri- 
ved at  this  stage  of  the  defacation,  the  fire  must  be 
withdrawn,  and  the  boiler  left  to  itself  for  an  hour  or 
two  that  the  whole  may  settle  properly.  The  cock 
placed  just  above  the  bottom  of  the  boiler  should  be 
opened  to  draw  off*  the  liquor  clear.  The  juice  is 
then  conveyed  to  the  evaporating  pans,  of  which 
more  hereafter.  Care  should  be  taken  to  watch  the 
liquor  as  it  runs  ofl",  lest  any  part  should  become  thick 
and  turbid,  especially  towards  the  end;  so  soon  as 
this  is  perceived,  the  cock  should  be  closed  and  the 
lower  one  opened,  that  the  residuum  may  pass 
through  the  filtre.  When  this  is  all  drawn  off*,  thQ 
boiler  is  ready  for  a  fresh  charge. 


BEET   ROOT   SUGAR.  209 

^'  It  has  been  shown  that  it  is  better  to  use  too 
much  than  too  little  lime  in  defacation.  Both  are 
stated  to  be  evils,  and,  yet  of  the  two  evils  the  for- 
mer is  the  least.  After  having  operated  on  the  extra- 
neous matter  in  the  sugar,  it  then  begins  to  act  on  the 
sugar  itself. 

"  Defacation  by  lime  alone,  then,  has  this  grand 
inconvenience,  that  a  part  of  the  sugar  is  destroyed 
lo  save  the  other.  In  this  process,  in  fact  when  this 
syrup  is  run  into  moulds,  it  produces  an  abundant 
crystalization  ;  and  the  molasses  which  comes  from 
it  more  rapidly  than  by  any  other  method,  has  a  very 
disagreeable  taste  and  smell :  it  has  but  little  sweet- 
ness ;  and  if  by  any  known  process  a  second  crystal- 
ization be  attempted,  not  an  atom  of  sugar  can  be 
obtained  from  it.  Nay,  more — the  sugar  partakes 
of  the  bad  taste  and  smell  of  the  molasses,  and  is 
thereby  rendered  unsaleable  in  the  market. 

*^  It  is  a  pity  that  the  defacation  by  lime  presents 
these  inconveniences,  for  it  is  the  mode  of  all  others 
the  simplest,  and  best  adapted  to  common  farm  es- 
tablishments. It  is,  indeed,  on  this  account  that  many 
manufacturers  who  have  adopted  it  continue  still  to 
use  it,  notwithstanding  the  inferiority  it  presents, 
both  as  to  quality  and  quantity  of  its  results  as  com- 
pared with  those  of  other  and  more  complicated 
methods.'^ 
18* 


RECAPITULATION ; 


OR    SUGGESTIONS    AFTER   WRITING    THE    WORK. 


There  appears  to  be  in  the  vegetable,  as  well  as  in  the 
animal  kingdom,  a  healing  and  preservative  power,  which 
repairs  all  breaches,  renovates  what  is  worn  out, and  strug- 
gles against  decay.  Physicians  call  this  power  in  the  hu- 
man system,  the  vis  medicatrix  et  conserv atrix  naturcB^  or 
the  healing  and  preservative  power  of  nature.  When  a 
bone  is  broken,  nature  immediately  begins  to  repair  the 
breach  by  throwing  out  a  secretion  of  bony  nialterj  which 
gradually  hardens  and  unites  the  ends  of  the  bones.  To 
still  plainer  show  her  intention,  Nature  after  having  unit- 
ed the  ends  of  the  bone,  builds  up  a  strong  ridge  round 
the  part  which  was  seperated,  as  if  to  guard  against  any 
future  violence.  This  ridge  may  be  felt  through  the  flesh 
by  any  person,  particularly  a  young  one,  who  has  had  a 
bone  broken.  In  grafting  a  tree,  precisely  the  same  ope- 
ration is  carried  on.  A  secretion  of  sap  is  thrown  out, 
which  hardens  into  wood  and  thus  unites  the  two  parts. 
When  the  human  flesh  is  cut  with  a  knife,  nature  also  se-. 
cretes  from  the  blood  a  fluid,  but  not  bony,  which  thick- 
ens like  glue  when  the  wound  is  kept  from  the  air,  and 
unites  the  lips  of  the  wound  by  the  first  intention — that  is, 
without  suppuration.     But  if  the  air  is  suflfered  to  act  up^ 


RECAPITULATION.  211 

on  the  wound  by  its  being  uncovered,  the  oxygen  of  the 
atmosphere  unites  with  the  secreted  fluid,  and  renders  it 
so  thin  that  it  cannot  unite  the  lips  of  the  wound,  and 
hence  the  necessity  of  keeping  a  cut  finger  or  other  part 
wrapped  up  in  bandages.  Now  this  is  precisely  the  case 
with  a  tree.  If  a  deep  cut  is  made  into  it,  a  fluid  is  se- 
creted, which  will  unite  the  wound  if  kept  covered  ;  but  if 
not,  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  unites  with  the  secret- 
ed fluid  and  renders  it  too  thin  to  unite  the  wound.  Here 
we  see  a  great  similitude  between  the  animal  and  vegeta- 
ble, which  it  is  found  will  correspond  throughout. 

We  find  too,  when  we  open  the  great  volume  of  nature 
and  pry  into,  her  works,  that  there  is  a  perfect  adaptation 
of  every  thing  to  its  proper  place,  use  or  end.  We  see  it 
in  the  golden  globes  which  wheel  their  courses  round  the 
.great  hall  of  Heaven — we  see  it  in  the  glorious  sun,  with- 
out whose  light  and  heat  all  animal  and  vegetable  life 
must  perish.  Without  his  light  the  beautiful  colors  which 
deck  and  adorn  this  world  of  flowers  were  extinct,  and 
without  the  atmosphere  which  surrounds  us,  the  melodi- 
ous sounds  of  music  would  delight  our  ears  no  more  ;  for 
there  is  no  sound  in  a  vacuum.  We  see  this  wonderful  a- 
daptation  of  Nature  in  the  things  which  are  upon  oyr 
earth  and  in  what  concerns  man.  In  level  and  temperate 
countries,  where  swiftness  is  required,  the  horse  is  placed. 
On  the  desert  we  find  the  camel,  an  animal  capable  of  en- 
during long  fatigue  and  of  carrying  with  it  a  supply  of  wa- 
ter. It  is  well  known  that  water  is  scarce  on  the  great 
deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa,  and  on  this  very  account  Na- 
ture has  placed  a  large  hollow  hump  on  the  back  of  the 
camel,  in  which  he  may  carry  his  supply  of  water.     He 


212  RECAPITULATION. 

has  also  the  power  of  eating  a  large  quantity  of  food,  half 
chewed,  which  he  can  bring  up  at  pleasure  and  chew  as 
he  passes  over  the  desert.  Here  we  see  the  wisdom  of 
the  great  Disposer  of  all  things.  Had  the  horse  been  pla- 
ced upon  the  desert  as  a  beast  of  burthen,  instead  of  the 
camel,  he  would  have  perished  for  water  and  food  before 
half  his  journey  were  performed.  In  Lapland  and  other 
northern  climes,  where  the  earth  is  covered  with  eternal 
snows,  the  Reindeer  is  placed.  His  legs  are  slender,  but 
ihey  are  supported  by  the  snow.  He  must  travel  rapidly, 
or  his  master  would  perish  in  a  long  journey.  There  is  a 
«kin  which  he  can  draw  down  over  his  eye,  to  protect  it 
from  the  frozen  flakes  of  snow,  which  would  inevitably 
put  his  eyes  out.  In  the  centre  of  the  skin  is  a  very  mi- 
«ule  hole,  through  which  he  can  distinctly  see  his  way 
without  the  possibility  of  injury  from  the  frozen  particles. 
Here  again  we  see  a  wise  provision  and  adaptation  of  na- 
ture. Were  the  eyes  of  the  reindeer  unprotected,  it  would 
be  impossible  for  the  animal  to  travel  in  those  regions  of 
perpetual  storm,  where  the  snow  flakes  are  driven  before 
the  wind  with  immense  velocity.  And  again,  were  the 
reindeer  placed  upon  the  burning  sands  of  the  desert,  or 
the  camel  upon  the  snow-clad  hills  of  LapUad,  how  soon 
would  each  perish  in  the  performance  of  the  other's  task ; 
how  ill  adapted  would  they  be  to  those  climates.  Wonder- 
ful are  thy  works  and  ways,  Oh  Lord,  God  of  Heaven  ! 

There  is  a  power  in  Nature  which  is  ever  striving  a- 
gainst  decay.  Nature  evidently  endeavors  to  renovate 
herself.  Mark  yon  field  which  has  been  turned  out  as 
good  for  nothing  by  the  injudicious  farmer,  who  has  work- 
ed it  until  it  can  yield  no  longer.  Nature  teaches  him  how 


RECAPITULATION.  213 

to  act.  In  the  first  place  she  causes  a  small  grass  to  spring 
up  and  then  a  white  clover,  that  the  soil  may  be  covered 
from  the  burning  rays  of  the  sun.  The  rains  and  dews 
fall  and  moisten  the  soil,  and  are  prevented  from  being  sud- 
denly evaporated  by  the  covering  which  is  thus  provided. 
That  water  enriches  gradually  the  soil,  for  we  find  the 
farmer  tilling  that  field  again  in  a  {evr  years.  If  water  a- 
lone  does  not  enrich  the  earth,  how  is  it  that  all  duck  pud- 
dles, swamps,  ditches  and  marshes  become  rich  .'^  Lookat 
the  spot  round  your  well  which  but  a  few  years  ago  was 
a  mere  sand  hill,  it  is  now  rich,  and  yet  no  manure  has 
ever  been  put  there.  By  what  means  is  it  rich  ?  Certain- 
ly not  from  any  cause  but  water. 

A  plant  will  not  grow  in  earth  alone.  Take  a  portion 
of  the  richest  earth  that  ever  was  seen,  divest  it  of  all  wa- 
ter, and  if  you  plant  a  seed  in  it,  it  will  not  grow.  But 
seed  will  germinate  and  grow  in  water  without  a  particle 
of  earth.  Take  an  acorn,  attach  a  string  to  it,  and  hang  it 
in  a  tumbler  half  full  of  water,  just  so  as  not  to  touch  the 
water.  Even  the  vapour  which  will  rise  by  evaporation 
from  the  water,  will  cause  the  acorn  to  send  forth  a  stalk 
and  roots,  the  latter  of  which  will  strike  into  the  water 
and  soon  fill  the  bottom  space  of  the  tumbler.  Wheat  will 
also  grow  in  water,  and  makes  a  beautiful  appearance,  as 
the  process  of  germination  is  there  visible,  and,  it  certain- 
ly is  one  of  the  most  wonderful  processes  in  nature.  Mark 
the  acorn  before  it  goes  into  ihe  earth ;  it  has  nothing  in 
its  appearance  which  resembles  the  oak.  A  roundish,  ob- 
iong  and  pointed  surface  is  all  that  presents  itself  to  the 
eye.  The  shell  bursts  and  a  delicate  little  stem  makes 
its  appearance.    Is  it  possible  that  in  that  acorn  lie  the 


^14  RECAPITULATION. 

elements  of  the  future  lofty  oak,  destined  to  brave  the 
storms  of  centuries  ?  Yes,  though  that  delicate  stem  may 
now  be  broken  with  a  pin,  it  may  one  day  become  the  mon- 
arch of  the  mountain,  or  the  pride  of  the  forest.  When 
we  contemplate  such  things,  well  may  we  exclaim,  "mw/- 
ium  in  yarvoP 

"  An  undevout  astronomer  is  mad,"  says  a  great  author, 
and  I  will  add,  that  he  who  reads  the  book  of  nature  and  is 
not  a  wiser  and  a  better  man,  has  spent  his  time  to  litile 
purpose.  How  many  pursuits  are  calculated,  if  reflected 
on  aright,  to  elevate  the  soul  to  that  Sublime  Being,  who 
has  spread  before  us  the  glorious  universe  for  our  contem- 
plation. In  the  cultivation  of  the  silkworm  the  mind  may 
muse  with  pleasure  and  profit.  In  the  life  and  transmi- 
gration of  the  silkworm,  we  see  an  almost  perfect  picture 
of  the  resurrection  of  man.  It  comes  into  the  world  a  ti- 
ny insect,  and  grows  with  great  rapidity.  More  wise  than 
raan,  it  prepares  its  own  tomb  and  comes  forth  a  beautiful 
butterfly,  to  work  no  more  but  to  enjoy.  Like  man  it  had 
its  infancy,  like  him  grew  up  to  labor,  like  him  found  a 
tomb,  and  arose  from  it  in  a  white  garb  of  beauty. 

Let  the  farmer  follow  nature  as  his  guide;  let  him  ob- 
serve every  and  even  the  most  minute  operation  in  her 
grand  field,  and  she  will  teach  him  the  true  and  legitimate 
mode  of  procedure.  Every  vine  has  a  lesson,  and  every 
flower  a  moral ;  yea,  every  thing  is  fraught  with  wisdom, 
if  man  will  read  it.  Believe  not  ihe  skeptic  for  a  moment. 
There  is  a  wise  God  who  reared  and  who  rules  the  universe. 
I  see  Him  in  the  grand  system  of  worlds  that  roll  through 
«pace,  and  I  hear  Him  in  the  midnight  blast.  His  majesty 
and  power  is  pictured  ii>  ihe  stormy  ocean,  and  the  beau- 


'^OITAIUTHAOSH 

xtr  a.^os2oId  sssnbriM  gnxvol  bxH  ^o  \S 
.9801  ericf  nx  afsoold  bxiB  991J  efif 
exH  rid^ol  sworfe  aasig  lo  siJtqe  >7xsva 
richtB9  nx  io98n±  ■x:t:9V9  bos  ^eseaboog 
mr  isrid'Sff//  mssisriq  axH  amuri  lis  bnB 
B  10  J'9nslq  B  nl  fflobEJtw  axH  ^bbz 
hall  em  ^xLl  b  10  leriiBSl  b  at  ^inslq 
bnB  30OXIOI3  ^bnBi§  9Bts8  eci&  Llid-z  mill 
•3X1X95  9lcfx3neri9iqinooni: 
^9iB  i^jtib'?  sri^  od"  abiow  izBl  \^ 
1 890100391  1U0X  bnBcfBifri  ^9i0JBn  wollol 
•Iio8  8B  IIsiT  8B  bnic!  10OX  evaiqflii  fans 


RECAPITUUTIQN         215 

ty  of  His  loving  kindness  blossoms  in 
the  tree  and  blooms  in  the  rose. 
Every  spire  of  grass  shows  forth  His 
goodness,  and  every  insect  in  earth 
and  air  hums  His  praise  •  "Whether  im 
seek  His  nisdom  in  a  planet  or  a 
plant,  in  a  feather  or  a  fly,  i»e  find 
Him  still  the  same  grand,  glorious  and 
incomprehensible  Being. 

Ify  last  words  to  the  Farmer  are, 
follow  nature,  htisband  your  resources, 
and  improve  your  mind  as  well  as  soil* 


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